glass

a brittle transparent solid with irregular atomic structure a container for holding liquids while drinking the quantity a glass will hold a small refracting telescope an amphetamine derivative (trade name Methedrine) used in the form of a crystalline hydrochloride

used as a stimulant to the nervous system and as an appetite suppressant a mirror

usually a ladies' dressing mirror glassware collectively

"She collected old glass" furnish with glass

"glass the windows" scan (game in the forest) with binoculars enclose with glass

"glass in a porch" put in a glass container become glassy or take on a glass-like appearance

"Her eyes glaze over when she is bored"

For eyeglasses, see glasses. For the drinking vessel, see glass (drinkware), Glass (disambiguation).''The materials definition of a glass is a uniform amorphous solid material, usually produced when a suitably viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature, thereby not giving enough time for a regular crystal lattice to form. A simple example is when Sucrosetable sugar is melted and cooled rapidly by dumping the liquid sugar onto a cold surface. The resulting solid is amorphous, not crystalline like the sugar was originally, which can be seen in its conchoidal fracture. The word ''glass'' comes from Latin ''glacies'' (ice) and corresponds to German languageGerman ''Glas,'' Middle EnglishM.E. ''glas,'' Old English languageA.S. ''glaes''. Germanic tribes used the word ''glaes'' to describe amber, recorded by Roman EmpireRoman historians as ''glaesum.'' Anglo-Saxons used the word ''glaer'' for amber.The remainder of this article will be concerned with a specific type of glass—the silica-based glasses in common use as a building, container or decorative material.----In its pure form, glass is a transparency (optics)transparent, relatively strength of materialsstrong, hard-wearing, essentially inert, and biologybiologically inactive material which can be formed with very smooth and impervious surfaces. These desirable properties lead to a great many uses of glass. Glass is, however, brittle and will break into sharp shards. These properties can be modified, or even changed entirely, with the addition of other compounds or heat treatment.Common glass is mostly amorphous silicon dioxide (SiliconSiOxygenO₂), which is the same chemical compound found in quartz, or in its polycrystalline form, sand.

Properties and Uses - in Brittany.]]One of the most obvious characteristics of ordinary glass is that it is transparent to visible light (not all glassy materials are). The transparency is due to an absence of electronic transition states in the range of visible light, and to the fact that such glass is homogeneous on all length scales greater than about a wavelength of visible light (inhomogeneities cause light to be scattered, breaking up any coherent image transmission). Ordinary glass does not allow light at a wavelength of lower than 400 nanometrenm, also known as ultraviolet light or UV, to pass. This is due to the addition of compounds such as soda ash (sodium carbonate). Pure SiO₂ glass (also called fused quartz) does not absorb UV light and is used for applications that require transparency in this region, although it is more expensive. This type of glass can be made so pure that hundreds of kilometres of glass are transparent at infrared wavelengths in fibre optic cables. Individual fibers are given an equally transparent cladding of !SiO₂/Ge rmanium? O₂ glass, which has only slightly different optical properties (the germanium contributing to a lower index of refraction). Undersea cables have sections doped with erbium, which Fiber_amplifieramplify transmitted signals by laser emission from within the glass itself.Amorphous SiO₂ is also used as a dielectric material in integrated circuits, due to the smooth and electrically neutral interface it forms with silicon. Glasses used for making opticsoptical devices are commonly categorized using a letter-number code from the Schott Glass catalog. For example, ''BK7'' is a low-dispersion (optics)dispersion borosilicate glassborosilicate crown glass, and ''SF10'' is a high-dispersion dense flint glass. The glasses are arranged by composition, refractive index, and Abbe number.Glass is sometimes created naturally from volcanic magma. This glass is called obsidian, and is usually black with impurities. Obsidian is a raw material for flint knappers, who have used it to make extremely sharp knives since the stone age. Obsidian collection is prohibited by law in some places (including the United States), but the same toolmaking techniques can be applied to industrially-made glass.

Glass Ingredients - Pure silica (SiO₂) has a melting point of about 2000 Celsius°C (3600 Fahrenheit°F), and while it can be made into glass for special applications (see fused quartz), two other substances are always added to common glass to simplify processing. One is soda (sodium carbonate !Na₂CO&l t;sub>3),? or potash, the equivalent potassium carbonatepotassium compound, which lowers the melting point to about 1000 °C (1800 °F). However, the soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is obviously undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide, CaO) is the third component, added to restore insolubility. Hence the use of the term soda-lime glass.Most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. Lead glass, such as lead Crystal (glass)crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more 'sparkles', while boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as in Pyrex. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a very high refractive index, and is used in producing high-quality lenses. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation).

Colors - has been added to produce a bluish colored decorative glass]]Metals and metal oxides are added to glass during its manufacture to change its color. Manganese can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint lent by iron, or in higher concentrations to give glass an amethyst color. Like manganese, selenium can be used in small concentrations to decolorize glass, or in higher concentrations to impart a reddish color. Small concentrations of cobalt (0.025 to 0.1%) yield blue glass. Tin oxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass, first used in Venice to produce an imitation porcelain. 2 to 3% of copper oxide produces a turquoise color. Pure metallic copper produces a very dark red, opaque glass, which is sometimes used as a substitute for gold in the production of ruby-colored glass. Nickel, depending on the concentration, produces blue, or violet (color)violet, or even black glass. Adding titanium produces yellowish-brown glass. Metallic gold, in very small concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-colored glass, while lower concentrations produces a less intense red, often marketingmarketed as "Cranberry glasscranberry". Uranium (0.1 to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or green color. Uranium glass is typically not radioactive enough to be dangerous, but if ground into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, it can be carcinogenic. Silver compounds (notably silver nitrate) can produce a range of colors from Orange (colour)orange-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colors produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and not well understood. New colored glasses are frequently discovered.

History of glass - Naturally occurring glass, such as obsidian, has been used since the stone age. The first documented instructions for glass making is in Egypt around 1500 BC, when glass was used as a glaze for pottery and other items. In the first century BC the technique of glass blowingblowing glass was developed and what had once been an extremely rare and valuable item became much more common. During the Roman Empire many forms of glass were created, mostly for use in vases and bottles. Glass was made from sand, plant ash and lime. The earliest use of glass was as a colored, opaque, or transparent glaze applied to ceramics before they were fired. Small pieces of colored glass were considered valuable and often rivaled precious gems as jewelry items. As time passed, it was discovered (most likely by a potter) that if glass is heated until it becomes semi-liquid, it can be shaped and left to cool in a new , solid, independently standing shape. In the first century BC, somewhere at the eastern end of the mediterranean, a new invention caused a true revolution in the glass industry. This was the discovery of glassblowing, both free-blowing and mold-blowing. The color of "natural glass" is green to bluish green. This color is caused by the varying amounts of naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities. Glassmakers learned to make colored glass by adding metallic compounds and mineral oxides to produce brilliant hues of red, green, and blue - the colors of gemstones. When gemcutters learned to cut glass, they found that clear glass was an excellent refractor of light, the popularity of cut clear glass soared, that of colored glass diminished.Glass objects from the 7th century7th and 8th century8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. About 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.The 11th century saw the emergence, in Germany, of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres, swinging these out to form cylinders, cutting these while still hot, and then flattening the sheets. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice.Until the 12th century, stained glass (i.e., glass with some coloring impurities, usually metals) was not widely used. The centre for glass making from the 14th century was Venice, which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in dinner ware, mirrors, and other luxury items. Eventually some of the Venetian glass workers moved to other areas of northern Europe and glass making spread with them.The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-1800s. In this process, the glassblower would spin around 9 lb (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Venetian glass was highly prized between the 10th century10th and 14th century14th centuries as they managed to keep the process secret. Around 1688, a process for casting glass was developed, which led to its becoming a much more commonly used material. The invention of the glass pressing machine in 1827 allowed the mass production of inexpensive glass articles.The Cylinder method was invented by William J. Blenko in the early 1900s.Art is sometimes etched into glass via acid or other caustic substance (causing the image to be eaten into the glass). Traditionally this was done by a trained artisan after the glass was blown or cast. In the 1920s a new mold-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mold, so that each cast piece emerged from the mold with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of colored glass, led to cheap popular glassware in the 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass.

Glass tools - Since glass is strong and unreactive, it is a very useful material. Many household objects are made of glass. Drinking glasses, bowls, and bottles are often made of glass, as are light bulbs, mirrors, the picture tubes of computer monitors and televisions, and windows. In laboratorylaboratories doing research in chemistry, biology, physics and many other fields, flasks, test tubes, Lens (optics)lenses and other laboratory equipment are often made of glass. For these applications, borosilicate glass (such as Pyrex) is usually used for its strength and low coefficient of thermal expansion, which gives greater resistance to thermal shock and allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when heating and cooling experiments. For the most demanding applications, quartz glass is used, although it is very difficult to work. Most such glass is mass-productionmass-produced using various industrial processes, but most large laboratories need so much custom glassware that they keep a glassblowingglassblower on staff.Volcanic glasses, such as obsidian, have long been used to make stone tools, and flint (tool)flint knapping techniques can easily be adapted to mass-produced glass.

Glass art - Even with the availability of common glassware, hand blown or lampworkinglampworked glassware remains popular for its artistry. Some artists in glass include Lino Tagliapietra, Sidney Waugh, Rene LaliqueRene Lalique, Dale Chihuly, and Louis Comfort Tiffany, who were responsible for extraordinary glass objects. The term "crystal glass", derived from rock crystal, has come to denote high-grade colorless glass, often containing lead, and is sometimes applied to any fine hand-blown glass.There are many techniques for creating fine glass art; each is suitable for certain kinds of object and unsuitable for others. Someone who works with hot glass is called a glassblowingglassblower or lampworkinglampworker, and these techniques are how most fine glassware is created. Glass can also be cut with a diamond saw, and polished to give gleaming facets.Objects made out of glass include vessels (bowls, vases, and other containers), Paperweight collectingpaperweights, marbles, beads, smoking pipes, bongs, and sculptures. Colored glass is often used, and sometimes the glass is painted, although many glassblowers consider this crude. A significant exception is the collection of pieces by the Blaschkas.The Harvard Museum of Natural History has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of painted glass. These were lampworkinglampworked by Leopold Blaschka and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the method he used to make them. The Blaschka glass flowers stand as an inspiration to glassblowers today. See hmnh.harvard.edu - the Harvard Museum of Natural History's page on the exhibit for further information. Stained glass is an art form with a long history; many churches have beautiful stained-glass windows.

Architectural glass -

Float (annealed) glass - 90% of the world's flat glass is produced by the float glass process invented in the 1950s by Sir Alastair Pilkington of Pilkington Glass, in which molten glass is poured onto one end of a molten tin bath. The glass floats on the tin, and levels out as it spreads along the bath, giving a smooth face to both sides. The glass cools and slowly solidifies as it travels over the molten tin and leaves the tin bath in a continuous ribbon. The glass is then fire-polished. The finished product has near-perfect parallel surfaces. Glass is produced in standard metric thicknesses of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 19 and 22 millimetremm.Annealed glass is considered a hazard in architecturearchitectural applications as it breaks in large, jagged shards that can cause serious injury. Building codes across the world restrict the use of annealed glass in areas where there is a high risk of breakage and injury, for example in bathrooms, in door panels, fire exits and at low heights in schools.

Plate glass - Before Pilkington's invention, flat glass panels were generally made by extrusion or rolling; the surfaces were rarely optically parallel giving rise to commonly seen distortions. Optically parallel surfaces could be achieved by grinding and mechanical polishing, but only at considerable expense.

Cylinder glass - Glass is blown into a cylindrical iron mold. The ends are cut off and a cut is made down the side of the cylinder. The cut cylinder is then placed in an oven where the cylinder bends flat into a glass sheet. Before the introduction of the Pilkington method this was a popular method for glass manufacture. William J. Blenko used this method in the early 1900s to make stained glass. These imperfect panes have lead to the misconception that glass is actually a high-viscosity liquid at room temperature, which is not the case. (See #The case against glass being liquid at room temperaturebelow.)

Toughened glass - phone booth with tempered glass]]Toughened glass (also tempered glass or safety glass) is made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is cut to the required size and any required processing (such as polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass) is carried out before the toughening process starts. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace which heats it to above its annealing point of 600 °C. The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced draughts of air. This rapidly cools the glass surface below its annealing point, causing it to harden and contract, while the inner portion of the glass remains free to flow for a short time. The final contraction of the inner layer induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. The pattern of cooling can be revealed by observing the glass with polarized light. Toughened glass is typically assumed to be six times the strength of annealed glass. This is because any surface flaws tend to be pressed closed by the retained compressioncompressive forces, while the core layer remains relatively free of the defects which could cause a crack to begin.However, this strength comes with a penalty. Due to the balanced stresses in the glass, any damage to the glass edges will result in the glass shattering into thumbnail sized pieces. This is why the glass must be cut to size before toughening and cannot be re-worked once toughened. Also, ironically, the toughened glass surface is not as hard as annealed glass and is more susceptible to scratching.Toughened glass is typically used in unframed assemblies such as frameless doors and in structurally loaded applications.Toughened glass is considered a safety glass due to its increased strength and its tendency to shatter in small, rounded pieces which are less likely to cause injury.Using toughened glass could pose a security risk in some situations due to the tendency the glass has to shatter utterly upon edge impact.Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of "tempering" glass have been known for centuries. In the 1640s, Prince Rupert of the RhinePrince Rupert of Bavaria (1619–1682), who was grandson of James I of England, and nephew of Charles I of EnglandCharles I, brought the discovery of what are now known as "Prince Rupert's Drops" to the attention of the King. These are remarkable teardrop shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. The very rapid cooling produces tremendously high tensile stress in the glass giving it unusual qualities such as the ability to withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking. However, even the smallest scratch on the "tail" of the drop will allow the large amount of potential energy contained in the internal stresses of the glass to be released, causing it to explosively shatter so thoroughly that it is converted to a fine powder. The drops were often used as a practical joke, as the King would tell a subject to hold the bulb end in the palm of their hand while he broke the tip, producing a small explosion in the surprised person's hand. A video of the technique can be seen here museumofglass.org.

Laminated glass - Laminated glass was invented in 1903 by the FranceFrench chemist Edouard Benedictus. Inspired by a glass flask that had become coated with the plastic cellulose nitrate through laboratory carelessness, and then when dropped shattered but did not break into pieces, he fabricated a glass-plastic composite materialcomposite to reduce injuries in car accidents. However, it was not immediately adopted by automobile manufacturers, and the first widespread use of laminated glass was in the eyepieces of gas masks during World War I.Today, laminated glass is produced by bonding two or more layers of ordinary annealed glass together with a plastic interlayer, usually polyvinyl butyral (PVB). The PVB is sandwiched by the glass which is then heated to around 70 °C and passed through rollers to expel any air pockets and form the initial bond.A typical laminated makeup would be 3 mm glass / 0.38 mm interlayer / 3 mm glass. This gives a final product that would be referred to as 6.38 laminated glass. The interlayer keeps the two pieces of glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking up into large sharp pieces.Multiple laminates and thicker glass increases the strength. Bulletproof glass panels, made up of thick glass and several interlayers, can be as thick as 50 mm.The PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much higher sound insulation rating, due to the damping effect, and also blocks 99% of transmitted UV light.Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or where the glass could fall if shattered. Shopfront glazing and windshields are typically laminated glasses.Laminated glass is considered a safety glass due to its ability to hold together when shattered. In the event of breakage, the shards as held by the PVB interlayer.

Low-Emissivity glass - Metallic-based coatings applied to one or more surfaces of insulated glass can greatly decrease the glass unit's ability to transfer thermal energy, resulting in more efficient windows.

Self-cleaning glass - A recent innovation is so-called self-cleaning glass, aimed at building, automotive and other technical applications. A 50 nanometre coating of titanium dioxide on the outer surface of glass introduces two mechanisms which lead to the self-cleaning property. The first is a photocatalytic effect, in which ultra-violet rays catalyse the breakdown of organic compounds on the window surface; the second is a hydrophilic effect in which water is attracted to the surface of the glass, forming a thin sheet which washes away the broken-down organic compounds.

Evacuated glazing - Another recent innovation for insulated glazing is evacuated glass, which as yet is produced commercially only in Japan.An evacuated glazing unit is made by sealing the edges of two glass sheets, typically by using a solder glass, and evacuating the space inside with a vacuum pump. The evacuated space between the two sheets can be very shallow and yet be a good insulator, yielding insulative window glass with nominal thicknesses as low as 6mm overall. The reasons for this low thickness are deceptively complex, but the potential insulation is good essentially because there can be no convection or gasesous conduction in a vacuum. The extreme thinness of evacuated glazing offers many new architectural possibilities, particularly in building conservation and historicist architecture, where evacuated glazing can replace traditional single glazing.Unfortunately, evacuated glazing does have some disadvantages; its manufacture is complicated and difficult. For example, a necessary stage in the manufacture of evacuated glazing is "offgassing"; that is, heating it liberate any gasses adsorbed on the inner surfaces, which could otherwise later escape and destroy the vacuum. This heating process currently means that evacuated glazing cannot be toughened or heat-strengthened. If an evacuated safety glass is required, the glass must be laminated. The high temperatures necessary for offgassing also tend to destroy the highly effective "soft" low-emissivity coatings that are often applied to one or both of the internal surfaces (i.e. the ones facing the air gap) of other forms of modern insulative glazing, in order to prevent loss of heat through infra-red radiation. Slightly less effective "hard" coatings are still suitable for evacuated glazing, however.Furthermore, because of the atmospheric pressure present on the outside of an evacuated glazing unit, its two glass sheets must somehow be held apart in order to prevent them flexing together and touching each other, which would defeat the object of evacuating the unit. The task of holding the panes apart is performed by a grid of spacers, which typically consist of small stainless steel discs that are placed around 20mm apart. The spacers are small enough that they are visible only at very close distances - typically up to 1m. However, the fact that the spacers will conduct some heat often leads in cold weather to the formation of temporary, grid-shaped patterns on the surface of an evacuated window, consisting either of small circles of interior condensation centered around the spacers, where the glass is slightly colder then average, or, when there is dew outside, small circles on the exterior face of the glass, in which the dew is absent because the spacers make the glass near them slightly warmer.The conduction of heat between the panes, caused by the spacers, tends to limit evacuated glazing's overall insulative effectiveness. Nevertheless, evacuated glazing is still as insulative as much thicker conventional double glazing and tends to be stronger, since the two constituent glass sheets are pressed together by the atmosphere, and hence react practically as one thick sheet to bending forces. Evacuated glazing also offers very good sound insulation in comparison with other popular types of window glazing.Glass is very durable, but an evacuated glazing unit cannot be effective forever, even in ideal conditions, since it is inevitable that eventually enough gas molecules from the air will permeate through the glass and into the void that its insulative properties are destroyed. Because of the physics of low-pressure gasses, this loss of insulation does not happen in a linear fashion, but surprisingly suddenly. Despite this failure mechanism, manufacturers and researchers do believe that the lifespan of evacuated glass will be competitive with other forms of double-glazing, which tend to fail through an ingress of water.

Glass as a liquid - One common belief is that glass is a super-cooled liquid of Infinite viscosity when at room temperature. Supporting evidence for this position is that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape.One possible source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowingglassblowers, the technique that was used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of centripetal forces. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down for the sake of stability. Also, the sparkle is greater and the visual effect stronger when the thicker side is down. There is anecdotal evidence that occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation.Writing in the American Journal of Physics, physicist Edgar D. Zanotto states "...the predicted relaxation time for GeO₂ at room temperature is 10³² years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer" (Am. J. Phys, 66(5):392-5, May 1998). In layperson's terms, he wrote that glass at room temperature is very strongly on the solid side of the spectrum from solids to liquids.

Evidence against glass flow -

If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more—but this is not observed.

If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then changes in optical telescope mirrors should be observable (by interferometry) in a matter of days—but this also is not observed. Similarly, it should not be possible to see Newton's rings between decade-old fragments of window glass—but this can in fact be quite easily done.

Likewise, precision optical lenses and mirrors used in microscopes and telescopes should gradually deform and lose focus. This is also not observed.

See also -

Art glass

Beveled glass

Bulletproof glass

Fiberglass

Magnifying glass

Prince Rupert's Drops

Pyrex

Stained glass

Glass-reinforced plastic

References -

"Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?" ''Am. J. Phys.'', 66 (May 1998), pp 392–396

Noel C. Stokes; ''The Glass and Glazing Handbook''; ''Standards Australia''; SAA HB125-1998

''oxbowbooks.com - Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves: A Study on the Provenance and Chronology of Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves, Based on Visual Examination'' by Birte Brugmann

External links - wiktionary

cmog.org - Corning Museum of Glass, especially Research, Teach, and Learn section.

math.ucr.edu - Is glass liquid or solid? by Philip Gibbs on the spr USENET physics FAQ

dwb.unl.edu - Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids

? dwb.unl.edu - article on the non-flowness of glass

tafkac.org - Page devoted to the AFU glass flow controversy, with links to citations

glassnotes.com - Page stating that glass does not flow

1st.glassman.com - Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass

activglass.com - Self-cleaning glass - Product information from Pilkington.

straightdope.com - The Straight Dope article on glass, article discusses why glass is a liquid treated as a solidCategory:Glass*Category:Glass !artbg:Стъклоca:Vidrecs:S kloda:Glasde:Glaset:Klaases:Vi drioeo:Vitrofa:شیشهfr:Verr egl:Vidroid:Kacait:Vetrohe:ז� �וכיתjv:Kacaku:Camlt:Stikl asmk:Стаклоms:Kacanl:Gla sja:ガラスno:Glassnn:Glasos :Авгpl:Szkłopt:Vidroro:Sti clăru:Стеклоsimple:Glas ssv:Glasth:แก้วvi:Th� �y? tinh !(chất)tr:Camzh:玻璃

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BMB high-quality-windows
JSC BMB is producing high quality windows and doors from wood. BMB offers a wide range of products - also individual parts according to your special wishes. JSC BMB is exporting to all european countries and Russia.
http://www.bmb.lt/

Cliff House Studio & Gallery
Blown and fused glass by Raymond Rains Contemporary ceramics and Raku by Pam Summers
http://www.cliffhousestudio.com/

www.GlassSensations.com
Glass Sensations offers custom glass art for your windows, doors, cabinets and any other glass surface. The possibilities are endless...
http://www.glasssensations.com/

Glass blocks, luksfery, pustaki szklane, Wenty. GLASSPOL.
Luksfery, pustaki szklane, systemy montażu, pustaki o odporności ogniowej, pustaki i luksfery podłogowo-sufitowe, różne wymiary i wzory, całe i połówki, zakończeniowe, satynowane, okienka wentylacyjne do pustaków szklanych, .::NOWOŚĆ::. gotowe okna z pustaków szklanych (luksferów). Cały ten asortyment można znaleźć i zamówić w firmie Glasspol osobiście lub przez internet. Obsługa firm i klientów indywidualnych. Zapraszamy!
http://www.wenty.pl/

Chaos Glassworks
Chaos Glassworks is a hot shop and gallery located in Sutter Creek, California. It is owned and operated by David and Heather Hopman and offers a wide assortment of vases, bowls, paperweights, lighting, beads, and sculpture. All pieces are one of a kind. Custom work is welcomed.
http://www.chaosglassworks.com/

Professional Window Film Solutions From Enpro
In business for over 25 years, we are an industry leader focussed on customer service and high quality products
http://www.enprodistributing.com/

Murano Glass Shop
Produzione vetro di Murano, lampadari classici e moderni. Sculture in vetro, murrine, gioielleria in vetro di Murano. Lampade e illuminazione.
http://www.murrine.com/

Glass blocks, luksfery, pustaki szklane, Wenty. GLASSPOL.
Luksfery, pustaki szklane, systemy montażu, pustaki o odporności ogniowej, pustaki i luksfery podłogowo-sufitowe, różne wymiary i wzory, całe i połówki, zakończeniowe, satynowane, okienka wentylacyjne do pustaków szklanych, .::NOWOŚĆ::. gotowe okna z pustaków szklanych (luksferów). Cały ten asortyment można znaleźć i zamówić w firmie Glasspol osobiście lub przez internet. Obsługa firm i klientów indywidualnych. Zapraszamy!
http://www.glaspol.pl/

Neumann Studios Stained Glass
Full service studio offering traditional kiln-fired leaded stained glass for residences, churches, inns, restaurants, businesses.
http://www.neumannstudios.com/

Kanne & Kruike
Kanne & Kruike is specialised in European Art Nouveau and Art Deco objects (glass, ceramics, bronze, etc).
http://www.kanne-kruike.com

cuvettes by cuvetteshop.com
CuvetteShop.com is a cell distributor specializing in cuvettes/cells for Spectrophotometer and Fluorometer. We offer you a full line of optical cells made from quartz and glass
http://www.cuvetteshop.com/

Amwell Systems Website
Toilet cubicles and associated washroom products
http://www.amwell-systems.com

Jiri Petran - Glasspetran
Jiri Petran - Glass Chlebovicka 498 199 00 Praha 9 Czech Republic Phone : +420 281 980 796 E-mail: info@glasspetran.cz Activities: Manufacturing of decorative glass and glassware of every-day use. Manufacturing and repairs of laboratory technical glassware - works using glass-blowing lathe Production to the customer's specification.
http://www.glasspetran.cz/

of answers not given
a love story told in poems and poetic prose
http://www.riccardogiovanni.com/

GLAS / GLASS
20th Century European art glass.
http://www.botterweg.com/

wholesale replica handbag, designer handbag, wholesale replica watch
Our website is a large online wholesale source of replicas.We offer large numbers of replica products such as pen,louis vuitton handbag,scarf,wallet,shoes,rolex watches in lowest prices.
http://www.wholesale-replica.com/

Eminess Technologies Inc
Eminess Technologies Inc., a privately held corporation, was formed December 2000 and manufactures consumables polishing products for the global precision surface technologies industries. Eminess Technologies Inc. converts Rohm and Haas Electronic Materials, formerly Rodel®, raw material into polishing pads and manufactures specialty-polishing slurries used throughout the optics, semiconductor, wafer, and storage media substrates industries.
http://www.eminess.com/

Art of Twan de Vos
Twan,s work is always about people, their feelings, but primarily their underlying relationships. The subjects are commonplace and are illustrated in an open humorous manner. He makes colorful paintings, linocus, silkscreens and sculptures. Each painting is a collage of diary pages from different periodes. Motto's inspired by the 1970's appear on current issues. He says on this ...feelings are timeless.
http://www.twandevos.nl

Art-Helicon
Art Fine online gallery represents painting of contemporary and modern Russian artists
http://www.art-helicon.ru/

Color fiesta - Contemporary Glass Art & Fashion Accessories
Surbhi Vaswani is a California Glass painter and jewelry designer. She handpaints functional glassware and makes stained glass paintings. She also makes glass jewelry.
http://www.colorfiesta.com/

Langelo
Private website. Interpretation/Translation, accounting, Silver, Glass, China, Antiques, Holiday Pictures
http://www.langelo.dk/

Glass blocks, luksfery, pustaki szklane, Wenty. GLASSPOL.
Luksfery, pustaki szklane, systemy montażu, pustaki o odporności ogniowej, pustaki i luksfery podłogowo-sufitowe, różne wymiary i wzory, całe i połówki, zakończeniowe, satynowane, okienka wentylacyjne do pustaków szklanych, .::NOWOŚĆ::. gotowe okna z pustaków szklanych (luksferów). Cały ten asortyment można znaleźć i zamówić w firmie Glasspol osobiście lub przez internet. Obsługa firm i klientów indywidualnych. Zapraszamy!
http://www.luksfer.pl/

Tubular glass packaging Manufacturer-Klasspack Pvt. Ltd.
M/s Klasspack Pvt. Ltd., is one of India's leading manufacturer of Glass Ampoules and Tubular Glass Vials of USP type 1, widely used as packaging materials by Pharmaceuticals companies for their life saving drugs. Our product profile consists of wide varieties of Glass Ampoules ranging from 0.5ml to 25ml and Tubular Glass vials of USP type 1 only, ranging from 2ml to 100ml. We are the only company in India using 100% Schott glass tubing both Indian and Fiolax (German) as per our customer requirement. For more information on our company and our product kindly visit our web site at www.klasspack.com.
http://www.klasspack.com/

the roman arch
unique jewelry and judaica desing by the Israeli artist Sharon Sadan on the Jerusalem Cardo
http://www.roman-arch.com/

Hand Crafted Gifts & Jewelry from JAIPUR
Please Visit Our Website To Purchase Hand Crafted gifts ,Jewelry ,Jewelry Accessories,gifts for all ocassion form JAIPUR INDIA on attractive price
http://www.crafts-bazaar.com/

Grafted Coatings, Inc. - KTM® Waterborne Coatings for Interior and Exterior.
Grafted Coatings offers a variety of products to make your finishing of wood,metals, fiberglass and/or products made of plastics such as cellular pvc, poly...EASY. Standard colors are available online and custom colors are available to match your color needs. Ideal for fiberglass, steel entry doors, composite molded doors and even primed trim and windows. Transform ordinary molded doors that are embossed into elegant wood-grained doors in two easy steps. Ideal for the professional or Do-It-Yourself painter.
http://www.graftedcoatings.com/

http://www.notis-artglass.gr
Stained glass in a wide variety of styles & patterns and architectural-decorative glass art applications: Glass sculpture, crystal ceilings, lightings, dividers, doors, stained-glass windows, special structures.
http://www.notis-artglass.gr/

SOSAntique
Scandinavian Art and Artglass.
http://www.sosantique.net/

Beoples Bead People Pins & other Fun Jewelry
Fun, funky, whimsical and definitely different bead people pins with a unique personality, hand made with wild hair using glass and metal beads and a variety of textiles. Other fun jewelry also!
http://www.beoples.com/

Something Glassy
Stained Glass Wind Chime One of a kind handcrafted stained glass kaleidoscopes, wind chimes , boxes and other stained glass art. I use a variety of natural Brazilian agate slices , quartz and amethyst stones and chambered nautilus shells in my glass art. Bevels and glass nuggets are some of the glass supplies you can find on my site.
http://www.somethingglassy.com/

Glass blocks, luksfery, pustaki szklane, Wenty. GLASSPOL.
Luksfery, pustaki szklane, systemy montażu, pustaki o odporności ogniowej, pustaki i luksfery podłogowo-sufitowe, różne wymiary i wzory, całe i połówki, zakończeniowe, satynowane, okienka wentylacyjne do pustaków szklanych, .::NOWOŚĆ::. gotowe okna z pustaków szklanych (luksferów). Cały ten asortyment można znaleźć i zamówić w firmie Glasspol osobiście lub przez internet. Obsługa firm i klientów indywidualnych. Zapraszamy!
http://www.glasspol.pl/

Glasses Direct
High quality prescription glasses, custom made to your prescription, from only £15
http://www.glassesdirect.co.uk/

Kittamor Kitchenware
Come experience the best quality cookware at extremely affordable prices!
http://www.kittamor.com/

The Scale Model Airplane Collector!
The Scale Model Airplane Collector! is designed to be the only collecting software program you will ever need to catalog and collect any type scale model airplane.
http://www.collectiblessoftware.com/TSMAC.html

Welcome at Schallmeiner Art & Antiques
We sell and buy high quality, original antique furniture, fine art, ceramics, sculptures, jewellery and more.
http://www.egon-schiele.at/

International Armoring Corporation
Custom manufacturer of armored vehicles such as armored cars for passengers. Features include IAC level 5 protection, transparent armor, armored roof, & armored floor. Armor materials include composites of glass & polycarbonate substrates laminated with inter layers. Reinforcement of pillar posts & hinge mounts, high pressure heavy duty shocks, & suspension upgrades are carried out as required to maintain original appearance & maneuverability. Markets served include automotive, aerospace, government, executive businesses, & defense organizations.
http://www.internationalarmoringcorporation.com/

Gems2Behold Wholesale Beads and Costume Jewelry
Wholesale Beads - Murano Glass Jewelry - Venetian Beads - Swarovski Crystal - Beading Supplies - Czech and Delica Rocailles Seed Beads - Costume Jewelry and Findings Wholesale beads, Murano glass costume jewelry, beading supplies and jewelry making supplies. Exquisite beads as Swarovski crystals, Venetian glass bead, from Murano, Austrian crystal, gemstones, ceramic, wholesale jewelry tools, beading supplies and freshwater pearls. Jewelry and Murano glass gifts. * Wholesale and Retail
http://www.gems2behold.com/

jpf designs
jpf stained glass design is based in Glasgow and produces interesting and individual stained glass decorations for the home including lampshades, standing lamps, glass panels, suncatchers, and all kinds of bespoke and ready made decorative items
http://www.jpfglass.co.uk/

Coastal Art Glass, Weymouth, MA
Custom and pre-made stained, leaded, etched, beveled and painted glass. Restorations and repair
http://www.coastalglassart.com/

Russian Insulators Factory
Site biggest manufactured high voltage insulators: station post insulators, suspension insulators, glass insulators, polymer insulators.
http://www.insulators.ru/

Pulling micropipettes for iontophoresis
This site is a practical guide to microiontophoresis and extracellular electrophysiology. These techniques are used in neuroscience research to test the effects of neuroactive substances on single nerve cells or to deposit dyes or tract-tracer materials in the nervous system for subsequent histological analysis.
http://www.kationscientific.com/

NJM Gallery of Glass Art
Featuring the finest glass artists from across the USA, NJM Gallery offer a wide and varied selection of handblown glass art vases, paperweights, perfume bottles and more.
http://www.njmgallery.com/

http://www.wilsonglass.com/
Frameless heavy glass shower door kits shipped direct. Do it yourself and save a bundle. We can also have the glass made near you and you pay no shipping cost. High-end showers, wholesale prices.
http://www.wilsonglass.com/

Lauschaer Glaskunst ® - offizielle Seite der thüringer Glasbläserinnung
Hier stellen sich nur die Mitglieder der thüringer Glasbläserinnung vor, die berechtigt sind, das geschützte, eingetragene Markenzeichen Lauschaer Glaskunst ® zu benutzen.
http://www.lauschaer-glaskunst.com/

Vetreria Artistica Veronese di Oliboni giorgio
Artistic glass works - lamps, hand-worked stained glass, tied in lead and iron - mirrors, lamps, glass doors
http://www.olibonigiorgio.it/

Glass Fashion Jewelry
We are producers of glass fashion jewelry, completely handmade in Germany. A big part of the production is flamework, i.e. we work in front of a glassblower's lamp and we use colored glass rods and strings, dichroic glass or glass splinters and create our items one by one, forming the hot glass individually. It is impossible to manufacture one item exactly the same as the next, so each piece is a little one-off. Another part of the production is made in fusing technique, i.e. flat glass elements are molten together in a furnace. We manufacture necklaces, fingerrings, ear posts, ear clips, bracelets, brooches and many other items. We are able to do ranges as well as one- offs. You can see all our works at our website, www.galerie-glaswerk.de There is an online-shop at the site, but we do sell only to retailers, wholesalers and importers. We do not sell to the public. Our price range is from ca. 6,00 to 35,00 Galerie Glaswerk was founded 1983 and we are exhibiting at the Frankfurt Ambiente and Tendence since 1993. Also we have participated or are participating at the New York Gift Fair, the Paris Bijorca and many other international trade shows. Thus, we have a lot of content customers in all parts of the world. Though we might look like a rather small company, we are absolutely not afraid but well experienced in producing bigger quantities.
http://www.galerie-glaswerk.de/

Andros' Website
Life and art of Andros, an Italian artist.
http://www.androsart.com/

R & T Powder Coating
We felt there was a need for great quality powder coating and customer service with a quick turn-around time. We believe in giving our customers the best service and highest quality available at reasonable prices. R & T Powder Coating provides a wide variety of powder coating services, from high volume powder coating demands to single custom powder coating projects.
http://www.rtpowdercoating.com/

Peggy's Custom Designs
This page has hand made lampworked glass beads, Rottweiler graphics and cross stitch charts. They are all desinged and made by me, Peggy Rose.
http://www.laughingrott.com/

Bali Crafters: unique fashion jewelry and accessory from Bali
Bali crafters is supplier, wholesaler and manufacturer of unique fashion jewelry, costume jewelry, vintage jewelry, imitation jewelry, handmade jewelry, beaded jewelry, accessory, bag, shoes & slipper and handicraft from Bali - Indonesia We also supply for dream catcher, bamboo wind chime, metal chime, and mobile. Costume order and design are welcome
http://www.balicrafters.com/

Atlanta Art Glass
Blown Glass by offhand glass artists located in the Atlanta Georgia area. A culmination of glass art crafted by blowers with varied styles ranging from traditional Italian and Venetian techniques to freeform glass blowing.
http://www.atlantaartglass.com/

Full Circle Recycling Company
Offering commercial recycling collection service and document destruction service solutions to offices, office buildings, schools, residential buildings, hotels, restaurants, and institutions of any size.
http://www.fullcirclerecycling.com/

Wholesale Gifts - A1A GiftsOnline.com
Gifts at Wholesale Prices. No Minimum Orders and No Monthly Fees.
http://www.a1agiftsonline.com

Rene Smerda - Czech Glass Design Studio
Bohemian glass and costume jewellery producers and wholesalers. Includes an overview of products offered with image galleries, plus contact details.
http://www.renesmerda.cz/

design furniture
solid wood tables diadesi: oak,walnut,wenge. made of the smoothest and highest quality solid wood. glass furniture diadesi. seats: danca design. hala and bradley lightings.
http://www.jansendesign.be/

Artisian Workshops
Paintings,Stained glass, Jewelry,Drawings,Eggery, Specialized Gift Wrapping, Free Workshops
http://www.Artisian-Workshops.com

Amberlamp
We are producer lamps from natural baltic amber, imitation amber and crystal lamp. All ours lamp are made by hands. The lams bases are cast brass.All lampsare wired to Polish, European,and British requried specyfication and American and Japanish requirements on request.
http://www.amberlamp.pl/

Coen Wolters band web site
Web site of Blues/rock guitarist Coen Wolters
http://www.coenwolters.com/

Design in Glass: furniture, sinks, jewelry...
blanco_studio designs and produces glass for Architecture, Interior design and Decoration.
http://www.blanco-studio.com/

Bead Essentials
Bead Essentials - Beads For All Your Needs - Free Beads With every Purchase. Now get 10% Off On Orders Over $100!
http://www.beadessentials.com/

Auctions house fine art
The auction house--live or online--for paintings, sculpture, other fine art, antiques, books, jewelry, toys, dolls, collectible memorabilia, and more. Authenticity and condition guaranteed.
http://www.hellmann-fine-art.de/

Windowfilm
Building and Car
http://www.sun-foiltec.ch/

The Corning Museum of Glass
Permanent collection, special exhibits, lectures, library. Online galleries. Open seven days a week.
http://www.cmog.org/

Philip Glass
Official site. Includes biography, list of works, and calendar.
http://www.philipglass.com/

OperaGlass
Includes libretti, source texts, performance histories, synopses and discographies plus pictures and background information. Extensive links to composers, librettists, operas, opera companies and opera people. From Stanford University.
http://opera.stanford.edu/

Through the Looking Glass
Provides information, services and training regarding families in which a parent or a child has a disability.
http://www.lookingglass.org