hypnotist

a person who induces hypnosis

Hypnosis has been practiced for thousands of years and continues to be controversial. There is evidence that healing trances were used in the healing temples of Ancient India. Ancient Egyptian scrolls tell of the use of sleeping temples and the use of hypnotic inductions for healing. Throughout history, hypnosis has periodically been in favor with health professionals and has fallen out of favor as many times.One of the problems that creates controversy is the wide variety of theories on hypnosis. The definitions of hypnosis are as varied as the definers. Dr. William Kroger states::"''Like the nature of human behavior, there will be different theories about hypnosis since all hypnotic phenomena have their counterpart in the various aspects of human behavior.''" (1977)The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in entertainment and in health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is sleepasleep or, popularly termed, in trance. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Clinical hypnosis has been used to increase the ability to recall memories, assist with dieting, smoking cessation, pain reduction or elimination, eliminating Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) as well as resolving mental disorders such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety and clinical depressiondepression.

Definitions -

American Psychological Association - In 1993, the American Psychological Association defined hypnosis as "a procedure during which a health professional or researcher suggests that a client, patient, or experimental participant experience changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behavior."refAPA This definition was revised and expanded March 2005. It begins, "Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented." (see apa.org - Complete definition and description.)

Dave Elman - Dave Elman defines hypnosis as "a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human mind is bypassed, and selective thinking established." The critical faculty of your mind is that part which passes judgment. It distinguishes between concepts of hot and cold, sweet and sour, large and small, dark and light. If we can bypass this critical faculty in such a way that you no longer distinguish between hot and cold, sweet and sour, we can substitute selective thinking for conventional judgment making. refElman

Physiological - Through data collected via electroencephalography (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns—frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain—were identified. The beta state is defined as 14-28 cycles per second (CPS), the alpha state is 8-12 CPS, the theta state from 4-7 CPS, and delta is defined as 3-5 CPS.The physiological definition states that typical therapeutic hypnosis occurs in the alpha state. Hypnosis for surgery, hypnoanesthesia and hypnoanalgesia occurs more readily in the theta and delta states. Arm and body catalepsy are indicators of readiness for these applications.

History -

Egyptian sleep temples - The first recorded history of the use of hypnosis for healing was found on ancient Egyptian papyrus scrolls which described sleep temples. These scrolls indicate the use hypnotic-type inductions to place the individual in a sleep-like state.

Paracelsus (1493-1541) and "Magnet" healing - Paracelsus, a Swiss medical doctor who is also known for his discovery of the mercury cure for syphilis, was the first physician to utilize magnets in his work. Many people were healed after he passed magnets (or lodestones) over their body.

Valentine Greatrakes and Johann Joseph Gassner (1600's) - sectstub

Father Maximilian Hehl/Hell (1725) - sectstub

Franz Anton Mesmer and "Animal Magnetism" - Western scientists first became involved in hypnosis around 1770, when Franz MesmerDr. Franz Mesmer started investigating an effect he called "animal magnetism" or "mesmerism" (the latter name still remaining popular today).In the early 19th century, Abbé Faria continued the scientific study of hypnosis. Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by "animal magnetism", Faria claimed that it worked purely by the power of suggestion.In the 1840s and 1850s, Carl Reichenbach began experiments to find any scientific validity to "mesmeric" energy, which he termed Odic force. Although his conclusions were quickly rejected in the scientific community, they did undermine Mesmer's claims of mind control.

Marquis de Puységur and somnambulism - sectstub

Recamier - sectstub

James Braid and "Hypnotism" - The evolution of Mesmer's ideas and practices led James Braid (physician)James Braid (1795-1860) to coin the term and develop the procedure known as ''hypnosis'' in 1842. He rejected Mesmer's idea of magnetism inducing hypnosis, and ascribed the creation of the 'mesmeric trance' to a physiological process—the prolonged attention on a bright moving object or similar object of fixation. He postulated that "protracted ocular fixation" fatigued certain parts of the brain and caused the trance, "nervous sleep." At first he called the procedure ''neurhypnotism'', but the current word soon emerged. Braid developed his ideas over time, downplaying his early idea of nervous sleep and increasing the role of psychological factors rather than fatigue. He came to recognize the role of intense, focused concentration by the participant on the hypnotist, a condition he called ''monoideism''.Braid attempted to use hypnotism to treat various psychological and physical conditions. He had little success, notably in his attempts to treat organic conditions. Other doctors had better results, especially in the use of hypnosis in pain control; a report in 1842 described an amputation performed on a hypnotized participant without pain. The report was widely dismissed and there was strong resistance in the medical profession to hypnotism, but other successful reports followed.

James Esdaile (1805-1859) - Dr. James Esdaile performed over 300 operations using hypnosis as pain control. The development of chemical anesthetics soon saw the replacement of hypnotism in this role.The deaths of Braid and Esdaile curbed the interest in hypnotism. Experimentation was revived into the 1880s, mainly in continental Europe where new translations of Braid's work were circulated.

Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) - The neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot endorsed hypnotism for the treatment of hysteria. ''La méthode numérique''("The numerical method") led to a number of systematic experimental examinations of hypnosis in France, Germany, and Switzerland. The process of post-hypnotic suggestion was first described in this period. Extraordinary improvements in sensory acuity and memory were reported under hypnosis.From the 1880s the examination of hypnosis passed from surgical doctors to mental health professionals. Charcot had led the way and his study was continued by his pupil, Pierre Janet. Janet described the theory of ''dissociation'', the splitting of mental aspects under hypnosis (or hysteria) so skills and memory could be made inaccessible or recovered. Janet provoked interest in the subconscious and laid the framework for reintegration therapy for dissociated personalities.

Holy See of 1847 - Objections had been raised by some theologians stating that, if not applied properly, hypnosis could deprive a person of their faculty of reason. Thomas_AquinasSaint Thomas Aquinas specifically rebutted this, stating that "The loss of reason is not a sin in itself but only by reason of the act by which one is deprived of the use of reason. If the act that deprives one of his use of reason is licit in itself and is done for a just cause, there is no sin; if no just cause is present, it must be considered a venial sin."In 1847, a decree from the !Congregation_for_the_Doctrine_ of_the_FaithSacred Congregation of the Holy office (Roman Curia) declared that "Having removed all misconception, foretelling of the future, explicit or implicit invocation of the devil, the use of animal magnetism (Hypnosis) is indeed merely an act of making use of physical media that are otherwise licit and hence it is not morally forbidden provided it does not tend toward an illicit end or toward anything depraved."Later, in 1956, Pope Pius XII gave his approval of hypnosis. He stated that the use of hypnosis by health care professionals for diagnosis and treatment is permitted. In an address from the Vatican on hypnosis in childbirth, the Pope gave these guidelines:# Hypnotism is a serious matter, and not something to be dabbled in.# In its scientific use, the precautions dictated by both science and morality are to be need.# Under the aspect of anaesthesia, it is governed by the same principles as other forms of anaesthesia.

American Civil War - sectstub

Discovery of chloroform and invention of the hypodermic needle - sectstub

Ambroise-Auguste Liébault (1864) - Ambroise-Auguste Liébault, the founder of the Nancy School, first wrote of the necessity for cooperation between the hypnotizer and the participant, for ''rapport''. He also emphasized, with Bernheim, the importance of suggestibility.

Emile Coue and the Laws of Suggestion - sectstub

Sigmund Freud, Joseph Breuer, and Hypnotherapy - Sigmund Freud met with his teacher Jean-Martin_CharcotCharcot, and with Liébault and Bernheim. Back in Vienna he developed abreaction therapy using hypnosis with Josef Breuer.

Hypnosis in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War - sectstub

Clark Hull (1943) - The modern study of hypnotism is usually considered to have begun in the 1930s with Clark Leonard Hull at Yale University. An experimental psychologist, his work ''Hypnosis and Suggestibility'' (1933) was a rigorous study of the phenomenon, using statistical and experimental analysis. Hull's studies emphatically demonstrated once and for all that hypnosis had no connection with sleep ("hypnosis is not sleep, … it has no special relationship to sleep, and the whole concept of sleep when applied to hypnosis obscures the situation"). The main result of Hull's study was to rein in the extravagant claims of hypnotists, especially regarding extraordinary improvements in cognition or the senses under hypnosis. Hull's experiments did show the reality of some classical phenomena such as hypnotic anaesthesia and post-hypnotic amnesia. Hypnosis could also induce moderate increases in certain physical capacities and change the threshold of sensory stimulation; attenuation effects could be especially dramatic.

Andrew Salter (1914-1996) - In the 1940s, Andrew Salter introduced to American therapy the Pavlovian method of contradicting, opposing, and attacking beliefs. In the conditioned reflex, he has found what he saw as the essence of hypnosis. He thus gave a rebirth to hypnotism by combining it with classical conditioning. Ivan Pavlov had himself induced an altered state in pigeons, that he referred to as "Cortical Inhibition", which some later theorists believe to be some form of hypnotic state.

British Medical Association approval (1955) - sectstub

André Weitzenhoffer and Ernest Hilgard - Studies continued after the Second World War. Barber, Hilgard, Orne and Sarbin also produced substantial studies. Ernest Hilgard and André Weitzenhoffer created the Stanford scales in 1961, a standardized scale for susceptibility to hypnosis, and properly examined susceptibility across age-groups and sex. Hilgard went on to study sensory deception (1965) and induced anesthesia and analgesia (1975).

American Medical Association approval (1958) - In 1958, the American Medical Association approved a report on the medical uses of hypnosis. It encouraged research on hypnosis although pointing out that some aspects of hypnosis are unknown and controversial.

Milton Erickson and Authortarian vs. Permissive styles - Milton Erickson developed many ideas and techniques in hypnosis that were very different from what was commonly practiced. His style is commonly referred to as Ericksonian Hypnosis and it has greatly influenced many modern schools of hypnosis.

Dave Elman - Dave Elman was one of the pioneers of the medical use of hypnosis. Elman's definition of hypnosis is still widely used today among many professional hypnotherapists.

Ormond McGill - Ormond McGill (1913-2005), stage hypnotist and hypnotherapist, was the "Dean of American Hypnotists" and writer of the seminal "The Encyclopedia of Genuine Stage Hypnotism" (1947).

Jeffery Zeig - sectstub

Theories - The exact psychological state of the subject is unclear, and its very existence and effects are strongly debated. Some believe that the hypnotist, the one who induces the state, can establish communication with the subconscious mind of the subject. This would allow him to make suggestions and to access memories more easily. Others believe that the state does not actually exist, and that all effects of 'hypnotism' that have been observed are in actuality a combination of subjects' expectations (based on their ''beliefs'' of hypnotism's effects) and their desire to please the hypnotist (see Hawthorne Effect). They point to the fact, that subjects under hypnosis can develop and come to wholly believe in memories that are implausible, and sometimes even proven false memoryfalse memories.Following are summaries of a few theories on hypnosis.

Hypnosis as a state of hysteria - Charcot postulated that hypnosis was a symptom of hysteria and that only those people experiencing hysteria were believed to be hypnotizable.refCharcot Although those exhibiting hysteria seem to be more suggestible, normal individuals are, indeed, hypnotizable which calls this theory into question.

Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep - Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a "partial sleep". He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis didn't significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.refpavlov Although some modern researchers still subscribe to this theory, Kroger states "during deep sleep, conditioned reflexes and physiological responses to a repeatedly given stimulus cannot be established, whereas in hypnosis the learning of conditioned reflexes is enhanced over and above that of the nonhypnotic state."In hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure, but there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.refDittborn

Dissociation and neodissociation theories - This theory of hypnosis, postulated by Pierre Janet, states that while in hypnosis, areas of an individual's behavioral control is split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexual behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as "dissociation of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place."refWeitzenhoffer Ernest Hilgard took this theory and went further with a neodissociation theory. This theory postulates that although there exists a normal ego function that controls socially acceptable behaviors, there are other processes that occur outside of these controls, and could also function simultaneously with the normal controls.

Altered state of consciousness theory - Hypnosis is commonly viewed by its proponents and practitioners as a natural, altered state of consciousness, where the conscious (analytical) mind is bypassed, and the subconscious (creative) mind is accessed. This allows the subject to use the power of visualization and suggestion, given by oneself or another, to change and improve behavior patterns.Hypnosis, then, is just a state of mental and physical relaxation, along with a more focused sense of concentration. Hypnosis is not sleep (as is often popularly assumed), and most people find that they are more aware of smells, sounds, and feelings than usual. Some believe that this is a form of trance state, similar to somnambulism, while others believe that hypnosis functions predominantly by focusing and diverting attention. This concentrated awareness is what allows the hypnotherapist to plant positive suggestions and images in the mind of the client to bring about lasting changes.

State theory - Currently a more popular theory, it proposes that hypnosis is a state or, more commonly, a "trance". Hilgard relates this state as an "ability component" or a "trait of hypnotic !responsiveness".ref Hilgard

Non-state theory - Barber theorizes that hypnosis is not a state or a trance and is not produced as the the result of suggestions. He suggests that hypnosis is based on a number of overlapping variables, but, primarily, that interpersonal relationships allows the operator to restructure perceptions and conceptions of the subject. He theorizes that this occurs because the subject is relatively inattentive to the environment and, because of this misdirection of attention, the subject is willing to think as the hypnotist wants them to think.refBarber

Role-playing theory - This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject.

Hypersuggestability theory - Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject's attention is narrowed by certain techniques used by the hypnotist. As attention is narrowed, the words hypnotist's words eventually take over the inner voice of the subject. From this theory comes the implication that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestable.

Informational theory - This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a "steady state". Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).

Hypnotism as a social construct - Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. This suggestibility has led some psychologists to believe that hypnosis does not actually correspond to any underlying mechanism of the human mind, but is merely a social construct so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. This would, if true, tend to denigrate hypnosis to the status of a purely social phenomenon.

Research - Research into the state of hypnosis has been widely covered with varying results. Nevertheless, some modern research seems to suggest that hypnosis has a genuine effect on brain functioning. For example, one controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may change conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not 'hypnotized', at least in "highly hypnotizable" people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in "highly hypnotizable" people as determined by positron emission tomography (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.) Another research example, employing event-related Functional magnetic resonance imagingfMRI and ElectroencephalographyEEG coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity "during Stroop effectStroop task performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction". According to its authors, "the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related Anterior cingulate cortexACC activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility." (Egner et al., 2005). Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotised state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.Others claim that hypnosis has been used with variable success for hundreds of applications, including entertainment, analgesia and psychoanalysis are widespread and well-documented.

Therapeutic applications - There are many individuals and organizations which have integrated hypnotism into systems of treatment.

General methods - The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction procedure. There is no current consensus on what the requirements are for an induction procedure to be effective; while some practitioners use simple calming verbal techniques, others use complex triggers, including mechanical devices (''see !hypnosistreatmentcenter.com - Michael Robinson's Self-Hypnosis Learning or Licensed Online Counseling, page 45)''.Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost anyone. They also claim it is a myth that people with strong will power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the best participants. This is based on the idea that those who are most intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make strong associations with the structure of language used by the hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one can really be hypnotized against his or her will (Ambroise-Auguste LiébaultLiébault, Le sommeil provoqué (Paris, 1889)). The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do anything against their will, you can change what it is that they wish to do.Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in their participants.

General effects -

Focused attention - This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds himself much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance, or when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen.The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of manually inducing a similar state (''See, for example, general information on the asch.net - ASCH website).

Suggestibility - mainSuggestibility Psychologists have produced controversial studies that seem to show a strong correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state of hypnosis and their level of suggestibility (see Stanford scales).Hypnosis has further been described as "The suspension of the critical factor" which expands on the idea of "increased suggestibility". A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject. For example, when told "you have forgotten your name," the subject in a normal state would react with disbelief, but under hypnosis people have claimed that they have, indeed, forgotten their own names. It often appears as if the hypnotized participant accepts the authority of the hypnotist over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants appear to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. (Richard Feynman describes this in his memoir ''Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!'' as his own experience under hypnosis.) The mechanism of this effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic trance, while skeptics would question the validity of this conclusion, citing that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the Milgram experiment, and suggest that unreliability in results discredits a scientific theory of hypnosis.

Judgment - Some believe that hypnosis can affect the subject's judgment and therefore could potentially cause them harm. In the hand of a "professional" seeking to promote the subject's welfare, those of this opinion believe, hypnosis can produce profound effects and be a compliment to treatment. Some of those who believe in hypnosis believe that in most cases one can resist hypnosis if one is aware of it. However, some of those who hold this belief also believe in brainwashing and/or mind control and believe that when hypnotism takes place in the context of these, resisting hypnosis is far more difficult. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists, let alone whether it is more difficult to resist hypnotism in the context of this unverified theoretical construct.

Hypnotherapy - mainHypnotherapy Hypnotherapy is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as "clinical work." Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma.Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Some of the so called 'incurable' diseases have shown to be treatable with the mind-body (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis). Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called repressed memoryregression, have been viewed with skepticism. In many cases false memories can be invented due to a combination of suggestibility (hypnosis is effective in part because it lowers the critical facility), social expectation, and intentional or unintentional collaboration from the way the hypnotist leads the exploration. Thus many feel that these memories cannot be held to be reliable recollections, with some denouncing the procedure as harmful to the patient, and without any basis in fact.The American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that "it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one"apa.org, and so the procedure is "fraught with problems of potential misapplication"pegasus.cc.ucf.edu. This is why Forensic Hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.

Clinical hypnosis - The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis is an organization that "promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications". Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by Milton Erickson, a doctor who attempted to put hypnosis on a firm therapeutic backing in the 1950s. Recently, efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) have been effective in most casesumm.edu.

Self-hypnosis - mainAutosuggestion Self-hypnosis—or autosuggestion) hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist—is a staple of hypnotherapy-related self-help programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a Dietingdiet, overcome cigarettesmoking or some other addiction, or to generally boost the hypnotized person's self-esteem. It is rarely used for the more complex or controversycontroversial uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus for their attention in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many computer programs on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though buyer beware!

Indirect application - In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced functioning', such as the suppression of pain, under hypnosis. One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.Some studies suggest that while hypnosis may possess these qualities, they are not exclusive to hypnosis, that it is often the drama and fantasizing that produces the behavior."And it's no coincidence that the most psychologically effective ad that the Bush campaign used in 2004 wasn't the wolf ad (that was #2) but one that had two specific NLP-based posthypnotic suggestions embedded into it, telling people that "in the quiet" and "when you're alone in the voting booth" that they "can't take the risk" of voting for Kerry. It looked like a simple check-list ad, but was saved for the last minute and played so heavily because it was so psychologically sophisticated and potent."buzzflash.com

Professional associations and governmental authorities - Several types of organizations exist to further the professionalism and regulation of practicing hypnotists. For example, professional associations typically offer opportunities for collegial exchanges and professional development in general and/or specialized areas of hypnosis. They also may establish codes of conduct and standards for various certification programs. They may offer such certification programs directly or approve third-party programs. Organizations not affiliated with any professional association may offer their own certificates as well. Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such credentials typically are called certificates or licenses. Some noteworthy examples of professional associations and governmental authorities that offer certification, licensure or statutes that regulate hypnosis follow.

Professional associations -

abmedhyp.org - American Board of Medical Hypnosis

hypnotistexaminers.org - American Council of Hypnotist Examiners

lankton.com - American Hypnosis Board for Clinical Social Work

apa.org - American Psychological Association, Division 30 Psychological Hypnosis: "Brings together psychologists and other professionals interested in scientific and applied hypnosis."

apmha.com - American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association

American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, founded by Milton Erickson in 1957: "Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications."

bathh.co.uk - British Association of Therapeutical Hypnotists

hypnosishalloffame.com - Council of Professional Hypnosis Organizations (International)

natboard.com - National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists (USA)

ngh.net - National Guild of Hypnotists (USA)

hypnosiscanada.com - Professional Board of Hypnotherapy (Canada)

sceh.us - Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis (USA)

Governmental authorities -

leginfo.ca.gov - California statute (Enter Chapter "820", Year "2002")

leg.state.fl.us - Florida statute

in.gov - Indiana Hypnotist Committee

Popular culture - The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are succeptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator.

Fictional treatments - The typical uses of hypnotism in fiction concentrate on one of the major abilities of hypnotism. As mentioned in the introduction, hypnotism can be used to:

Recollect knowledge

Take command of a subject

Implant suggestions that the subject will obey while free of the hypnotic trance.The recollection of knowledge has inspired use in detective fiction, as a tool for witnesses to examine details (such as license plate numbers) that could not be recalled while fully conscious. This appears in many television series, such as Law & Order or Homicide: Life on the Street. In addition, it has been expanded to the notion of remembering "past lives", that is, previous reincarnationreincarnations of the subject, in such movies as "DEAD AGAIN."In real-life cases, recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases, but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often corroborating with physical evidence which would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions that are more likely to be remembered as "truth". Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most like a lie detector, to glean more information, and never as the smoking gun.The notion of implanting suggestions is probably the most thoroughly explored; ranging from comedies such as ''The Naked Gun'' trilogy to dramas such as The Manchurian Candidate. These films usually center around the concept of brainwashing or mind control. Several cases have been recorded where the defense argued the accused had committed the murder under hypnosis, though there is little real evidence that such control is possible.

Stage hypnotism - Stage hypnotists will put on a show, usually comedic in nature, that centers around the use of hypnotism. Typically, they will select a subject from the audience and have him or her perform acts that he or she would normally be very reluctant to perform in public, usually slightly humiliating or embarrassing acts, such as dancing, singing, or pretending to be someone else. Very often, the subject will claim to not remember having performed these acts. The response to these acts from people who consider themselves legitimate practitioners of clinical hypnotism as well as skeptics of hypnotism is that the performer will select those from the audience that he or she feels already have exhibitionist tendencies, and use hypnotism to relax the inhibitions away or to give the person an unconscious excuse to violate his or her own inhibitions.

See also -

Chicken hypnotism

Highway hypnosis

Hypnotherapy

Hypnagogia

Hypnofetishism

Hypnosis (novel)

Lucid dreaming

Neuro-linguistic programming

Sedative (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)

References -

Footnotes - # noteAPA — Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis 1993, - Fall. ''Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30'', 2, p. 7; citation culled from hypnosis-research.org - hypnosis-research.org.# noteelman — Dave Elman, ''Hypnotherapy'', Westwood Publishing Company, 1984 ISBN 0930298047 (page 26).# noteCharcot — Charcot, J. M.: ''Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System''. London, New Sydenham Society, 1889.# notePavlov — Pavlov, I. P.: ''Experimental Psychology''. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.# noteDitborn — Dittborn, J.M., and O'Connell, D.N.: ''Behavioral sleep, physiological sleep and hypnotizability''. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15: 181, 1967)# noteWeitzenhoffer Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: ''Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestability''. New York, Wiley, 1953.# noteHilgard Hilgard, E.R., and Hilgard, J.R.: ''Hypnosis in the Relief of Pain''. Los Altos, CA, William Kaufman, 1975.# notebarber Barber, T.X.: ''The concept of hypnosis''. The American Journal of Psychology, 45: 115, 1958.

Books -

Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool

Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).

The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown & David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge

Better and Better Every Day, Emile Coue, (1960).

Uncommon Therapy, Jay Haley (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of Milton Erickson)

Advanced Self Hypnosis, Melvin Powers, Thorsons Publishers, 1973, ISBN-0-7225-0058-0

Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, Georgia Byng

Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. Robert Temple, 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4

Hypnosis With Friends and Lovers Freda Morris, 1979, ISBN 0062506005

Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis William S. Kroger, M.D., 1977, ISBN 0-397-50377-6

EBooks: pradeepaggarwal.com - The Power of Creative Visualization, pradeepaggarwal.com - Personal Transformation in 7 Weeks by pradeepaggarwal.com - Pradeep Aggarwal.

External links -

T Egner, G Jamieson, J Gruzelier, (2005) Hypnosis decouples cognitive control from conflict monitoring processes of the frontal lobe, NeuroImage, June 17. (Article in press sciencedirect.com, see nature.com for news coverage).

S. M. Kosslyn, W. L. Thompson, M. F. Costantini-Ferrando, N. M. Alpert, D. Spiegel, (2000) ajp.psychiatryonline.org - Hypnotic Visual Illusion Alters Color Processing in the Brain, Am J Psychiatry 157:1279-1284, August.

? hypnosis.edu - Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine

futurepundit.com - Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans (digest of several scientific articles)

nlpschedule.com - NLP, a method derived from Eriksonian Hypnosis

skepdic.com - Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary, Scientific skepticismskeptical review of the veracity of hypnosis.

science.howstuffworks.com - Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com

royhunter.com - Hypnosis FAQ of alt.hypnosis, by C. Roy Hunter, M.S., FAPHP

bcx.net - Hypnosis and self hypnosis FAQ, by Charles E. Henderson, Ph.D.

!harleyclinicalhypnotherapy.com - Clinical !hypnosisCategory:HypnosisCateg ory:Clinical? psychologyCategory:Mind !controlda:Hypnosede:Hypnosees: Hipnosisfr:Hypnosehe:×”×™×¤× × •×–×”lt:HipnozÄ—nl:Hypnoseja:å ‚¬çœ no:Hypnosepl:Hipnozapt:Hi pnoseru:Гипнозsk:Hypnóz afi:Hypnoosisv:Hypnos DEBUG REDIRECT (hypnosis)

Psychotherapy and Hypnotherapy Services
Analytical and Suggestive therapies to psychosomatic induced disorders
http://www.stag.it/

positive changes hypnosis
hypnosis for stop smoking, weight loss,stess,nail biting,phobia release
http://www.susanchorney.com/

Access 3000+ Hypnotherapists on Hypnotherapist Register
The largest register of Hypnotherapy Practitioners in the UK, Ireland Europe, plus free listing for Hypnotherapists
http://www.HypnotherapistRegister.org.uk

A Power Journey Hypnosis
Stop smoking, lose weight, overcome fears, sleep soundly, CD's for self hypnosis
http://www.apowerjourney.com/

ACD4Hypnosis.com
Self hypnosis tapes, CD's and books
http://www.ACD4hypnosis.com/

Szeles, James
Stage hypnotist for private, public and corporate events. Biography, booking, contact and show information included.
Http://www.szeles.com/

Sonic.net
Service in California, offering PacBell, Covad and BroadLink wireless DSL.
http://www.sonic.net

Boddington, Grant
New Zealand stage and motivational hypnotist. Contains show profiles, merchandise and contact information.
http://www.nzhypnosis.com/

Spencer
Salt Lake City, Utah comedy hypnotist. Includes show profile, reviews, schedule and merchandise.
http://www.sleepnow.com/

Stone, Kevin
Comedy hypnotist from Hollywood, California. Includes show description, upcoming events and contact information.
http://hypnotist.com/

Hamilton
Stage hypnotist based in Bellingham, Washington. Portfolio, video clips, schedule, show options and booking information included.
http://www.magicalhypnotist.com/