linux

an open-source version of the UNIX operating system

See Linux kernel for the kernel itself. See Linux (washing powder) for the Swiss brand of detergent. See 9885 Linux for the asteroid.'' , a cartoon penguin frequently featured sitting, is the official Linux mascot.]] systems filiation.]]Linux is a computer operating system and its kernel (computer science)kernel. It is one of the most prominent examples of free software and of open sourceopen-source development: unlike proprietary operating systems such as Microsoft WindowsWindows and Mac OS, all of its underlying source code is available to the public and anyone can freely use, modify, and redistribute it.In the narrowest sense, the term ''Linux'' refers to the Linux kernel, but it is commonly used to describe entire Unix-like operating systems (GNU/Linux naming controversyalso known as GNU/Linux) that are based on the Linux kernel combined with libraries and tools from the GNU project and other sources. Most broadly, a Linux distribution bundles large quantities of application software with the core system, and provides more user-friendly installation and upgrades.Initially, Linux was primarily developed and used by individual enthusiasts. Since then, Linux has gained the support of major corporations such as IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and Novell for use in servers and is gaining popularity in the desktop computerdesktop market. Proponents and analysts attribute this success to its vendor lock-invendor independence, low cost, security, and reliability. Linux was originally developed for Intel 80386Intel 386 microprocessors and now supports all popular instruction set architecturecomputer architectures (and several obscure ones). It is deployed in applications ranging from Embedded Linuxembedded systems (such as mobile phones and personal video recorders) to personal computers to supercomputers.

History - , founder of the GNU project for a free operating-system.]]In 1983, Richard Stallman founded the GNU project, which today provides an essential part of most Linux systems (see also GNU/Linux, below). The goal of GNU was to develop a complete Unix-like operating system composed entirely of free software. By the beginning of the 1990s, GNU had produced or collected nearly all of the necessary components of this system—libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix-like Unix shellshell, and other software—except for the lowest level, the kernel. The GNU project began developing their own kernel, the GNU HurdHurd, in 1990 (after an abandoned attempt called Trix (kernel)Trix). According to Thomas Bushnell, the initial Hurd architect, their early plan was to adapt the BSD 4.4-Lite kernel and, in hindsight, "It is now perfectly obvious to me that this would have succeeded splendidly and the world would be a very different place today" groklaw.net. However, due to a lack of cooperation from the University of California, BerkeleyBerkeley programmers, Stallman decided instead to use the Mach microkernel, which subsequently proved unexpectedly difficult, and the Hurd's development proceeded slowly. , creator of the Linux kernel.]]Meanwhile, in 1991, another kernel—eventually dubbed "Linux"—was begun as a hobby by FinlandFinnish university student Linus Torvalds while attending the University of Helsinki. Torvalds originally used Minix, a simplified Unix-like system written by Andrew Tanenbaum for teaching operating system design. However, Tanenbaum did not permit others to extend his operating system, leading Torvalds to develop a replacement for Minix. Linux started out as a terminal emulator written in IA-32 assembler and C programming languageC, which was compiled into binary form and booted from a floppy disk so that it would run outside of any operating system. The terminal emulator was running two Thread (computer_science)threads: one for sending and one for receiving characters from the serial port. When Linus needed to read and write files to disk, this task-switching terminal emulator was extended with an entire filesystem handler. After that, it gradually evolved into an entire operating system kernel intended as a foundation for POSIX-compliant systems. The first version of the Linux kernel (0.01) was released to the Internet on September 17, 1991, with the second version following shortly thereafter in October groups.google.com. Since then, thousands of developers from around the world have participated in the project. Eric S. Raymond's essay ''The Cathedral and the Bazaar'' discusses the development model of the Linux kernel and similar software.By the 0.01 release, Linus had implemented enough POSIX system calls to make Linux run the GNU Bash shell; after this bootstrapping procedure, development accelerated rapidly. A computer running Minix was originally necessary in order to configure, compile, and install Linux. Initial versions of Linux also required an operating system to be present in order to boot from a hard disk, but soon there were independent bootloaders, the most well known being LInux LOaderlilo. The Linux system quickly surpassed Minix in functionality; Torvalds and other early Linux kernel developers adapted their kernel to work with the GNU components and user-space programs to create a complete, fully functional, free operating system.Today, Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel, while other subsystems such as the GNU components are developed separately. The task of producing an integrated system, which combines all of these basic components along with graphical interfaces (such as GNOME or KDE, which in turn are based on the X Window System) and application software, is now performed by Linux distribution vendors/organizations.Tux the penguin is the logo and mascot of Linux (although there are other, less common representations; see OS-tan), based on an image created by Larry Ewing in 1996. The name "Linux" was coined, not by Torvalds, but by Ari Lemmke. Lemmke was working for the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT), located in Espoo near Helsinki, as an administrator of ''ftp.funet.fi'', an FTP server which belongs to the Finnish University and Research Network (FUNET), which has numerous organizations as its members, amongst them the HUT and the University of Helsinki. He was the one to invent the name ''Linux'' for the directory from which Torvalds' project was first available for download liw.iki.fi. The name was later trademarktrademarked (see below).

Licensing - The Linux kernel, along with most of the GNU components, is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that all source code modifications and derived works also be licensed under the GPL, and is sometimes referred to as a "share and share-alike" (or copyleft) license. In 1997, Linus Torvalds stated, "Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did." kde.sw.com.sg Other subsystems use other licenses, although all of them share the property of being free/open-source; for example, several libraries use the LGPL (a more-permissive variant of the GPL), and the X Window System uses the permissive (non-copyleft) MIT License.The ''Linux'' trademark (U.S. Reg No: 1916230) is owned by Linus Torvalds, registered for "Computer operating system software to facilitate computer use and operation." The licensing of the trademark is now handled by the Linux Mark Institute (LMI). LMI has also sought to enforce the Linux trademark in countries other than the US. In September 2005, Intellectual Property Australia, the trademark regulator in Australia, rejected an application to trademark Linux.

Pronunciation - ''Linux'' is commonly pronounced either to rhyme with ''minix'' "ˈlɪnəks">ˈlɪnəks , or to rhyme with ''my nicks'' "ˈlaɪnəks">ˈlaɪnəks . The first pronunciation is considered more correct, while the second has become popular for sounding more natural in English. Other variations are also possible, but less frequently heard.In 1992, Torvalds explainedgroups.google.com (IPA pronunciations added to quote in braces)::"'li' is pronounced with a short ee sound: compare prInt, mInImal etc. 'nux' is also short, non-diphthong, like in pUt . It's partly due to minix: linux was just my working name for the thing, and as I wrote it to replace minix on my system, the result is what it is... linus' minix became linux." An jx90.com - audio file of Torvalds saying "Hello, this is Linus Torvalds, and I pronounce Linux as /linəks/" also exists paul.sladen.org. Note that in English, "Linux" and "Minix" are usually pronounced with a short /I/ sound that is different from Torvalds's Finland-Swedish pronunciation of these words.''See also'' List of words of disputed pronunciation#LList of words of disputed pronunciation for a discussion of the various ways "Linux" is pronounced.

Linux and GNU/Linux - detailsGNU/Linux naming controversy Because the GNU libraries and programs, an essential part of nearly all Linux distributions, stem from a long-standing free operating system project that predates the Linux kernel, Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation ask that the combined system (regardless of distribution) be referred to as ''GNU/Linux'' or a ''Linux-based GNU system''. Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, has said that he finds calling Linux in general ''GNU/Linux'' "just ridiculous." Still, some distributions do use this name — notably ''Debian GNU/Linux'' — while most people simply refer to the system as ''Linux''. The distinction between Torvalds' kernel and entire Linux-based systems that contain the kernel is a perennial source of confusion, and the naming remains controversial.

Litigation - detailsSCO-Linux controversies In March 2003, the SCO Group (SCO) filed a SCO v. IBMlawsuit against IBM claiming that IBM had contributed some portions of SCO's copyrighted code to the Linux kernel in violation of IBM's license to use Unix. Additionally, SCO sent letters to a number of companies warning that their use of Linux without a license from SCO may be actionable, and claimed in the press that they would be suing individual Linux users. This controversy has involved lawsuits by SCO against Novell, DaimlerChrysler (partially dismissed in July, 2004), and AutoZone, and by Red Hat and others against SCO.To date, no proof of SCO's claims of copied code in Linux has been provided and SCO's claims have varied widely. A few of Novell's press releases seem to demonstrate serious problems with SCO's claims:

novell.com - 2003-May-15 Novell Statement on SCO Contract Amendment (good news for Linux users)

novell.com - 2003-May-28 Novell Challenges SCO Position, Reiterates Support for Linux

novell.com - 2003-May-30 Novell statement re: SCO press conference allegations

novell.com - 2003-Jun-06 Novell Statement on SCO Contract Amendment

novell.com - 2003-Nov-18 Novell Statement on SCO claims regarding a non-compete clause in Novell-SCO contractsThe most comprehensive coverage of this suit is given by Groklaw.

Distributions - detailsLinux distribution Linux is predominantly used as part of a Linux distribution (commonly called a 'distro'). These are compiled by individuals, loose-knit teams, and various professional organizations. They include additional system software and application programs, as well as certain processes to install these systems on a computer. Distributions are created for many different purposes, including localization, computer architecturearchitecture support, real-time applications, and embedded Linuxembedded systems, and many deliberately include only free software. Over 450 distributions are available lwn.net.A typical general-purpose distribution includes the Linux kernel, some GNU library (software)libraries and tools, command-line Unix shellshells, and thousands of application software packages, from office suites and the graphical X Window System to compilers, text editors, and scientific tools. A variety of Linux distribution screenshots can be viewed shots.osdir.com - here.SeealsoList of Linux distributions

Development efforts - ''dwheeler.com - Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size'', a study of Red Hat Linux 7.1, found that this particular distribution contained 30 million source lines of code (SLOC). The Linux kernel contained 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total. Using the COCOMOConstructive Cost Model (COCOMO), the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand person-years of development time. Had all this software been developed by conventional proprietary softwareproprietary means, it would have cost 1.08 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop in the United States. Slightly over half of the code in that distribution was licensed under the GPL.In a later study, ''Counting potatoes: the size of Debian 2.2'', the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 2.2. This distribution contained over fifty-five million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have cost 1.9 billion dollars (year 2000 dollars) to develop by conventional proprietary means.The source code for the Linux kernel used to be maintained using the software application called BitKeeper but there was a dispute with its openness so now it is maintained via Git (software)Git, the new directory content manager created by Linus Torvalds himself.

Applications - Desktop]]In the past, a user needed significant knowledge of computers in order to install and configure Linux. Because of this, and because of being attracted by access to the internals of the system, Linux users have traditionally tended to be more technologically oriented than users of Microsoft Windows and Mac OS, often revelling in the tag of "hacker" or "geek".This stereotype has been dispelled in recent years by the increased user-friendliness and broad adoption of many Linux distributions. Linux has made considerable gains in server and special-purpose markets, such as image rendering and Web services, and is now making inroads into the high volume desktop market.clearright Desktop]] Linux is the cornerstone of the so-called LAMP (software bundle)LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache HTTP ServerApache, MySQL, Perl/PHP/Python programming languagePython) that has achieved widespread popularity among Web developers, making it one of the most common platforms on the Web. A prominent example of this software combination in use is MediaWiki — the software primarily written for Wikipedia.Linux is also often used in Embedded Linuxembedded systems. Its low cost makes it particularly useful in set-top boxes and for devices such as the Simputer, a computer aimed mainly at low-income populations in developing nations. In mobile phones, Linux has become a common alternative to the Symbian OS software. In handheld devices, it is an alternative to the Windows CE and Palm OS operating systems. The popular TiVo PVR also uses a customized version of Linux. A large number of network Firewall (networking)firewalls and routers, including several from Linksys, use Linux internally, taking advantage of its advanced firewalling and routing capabilities. It is also expanding into telecommunications equipment through efforts such as Carrier Grade Linux.Linux is increasingly common as an operating system for supercomputers, most recently on 64-bit AMD Opterons in the Cray XD1. As of June 2005, the 3 fastest supercomputers in the world (as recorded by the Top500) run Linux.Linux is rapidly gaining popularity as a desktop operating system. In desktop environments like KDE and GNOME, Linux may be used with a user interface that is similar to that of Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, other desktop environments, and its traditional Unix-like command line interface. Graphical Linux software exists for almost any area and in some areas there is a greater quality and quantity of software available than for proprietary operating systems.

Usability and market share - Once viewed as an operating system only computer geeks could use, Linux distributions have become userfriendlinessuser-friendly, with many graphical interfaces and applications.Its market share of desktops is rapidly growing. According to market research company IDC, in 2002, 25% of servers and 2.8% of desktop computers were already running Linux. However, argued advantages of Linux, such as lower cost, fewer security vulnerabilities, and lack of vendor lock-in, have spurred a growing number of high-profile cases of mass Linux adoptionadoption of Linux by corporations and governments. The Linux market is among the fastest growing and is projected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008 techweb.com.Linux and other free software projects have been frequently criticized for not going far enough in terms of ensuring usability, and Linux has been generally considered more difficult to use than Microsoft WindowsWindows or the Apple MacintoshMacintosh, although it is steadily improving. Applications running within Graphical user interfacegraphical desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE in Linux are very similar to those running on other operating systems. While some applications cannot be run, there usually exists a replacement that will. A growing number of proprietary software vendors are supporting Linux, and open source development for Linux is also steadily increasing. Additionally, proprietary software for other operating systems may be run through compatibility layers, such as Wine (software)Wine. The area of hardware and services configuration is where user experience is most varied. GUI configuration tools and control panels are available for many system settings and services, but editing of plain-text configuration files is often required. On the Shell (computing)command shell, many usability hangups from early Unix days generally remain, such as the difficulty in finding some commands, and the inability to undo many operations such as file deletion. Many older programs with text user interfaces (TUI) have wild inconsistencies between them, but they maintain loyal followings.It used to also be easier to find local technical support for Windows or Mac OS than for Linux in some places. It is worth noting that an operating system's usability is subjective and dependent on the background knowledge and needs of its users. For example, Gentoo Linux, a source-based distribution, is time-consuming to install, but can be more usable for advanced users than stereotypical beginner-friendly distributions, such as Mandriva LinuxMandriva or Ubuntu LinuxUbuntu.Users might have to switch application software, and there may be fewer options, as in the case of computer games. Equivalents of some specific programs may not be available. However, general applications like spreadsheets, word processors, and browsers are available for Linux in profusion, and, because of free distribution, a user may choose what suits him or her.Most distributions of Linux have two or more means of software installation, and more office and end-user applications now come with an automated installation program. Because of reluctance to change and the fact that many computers come with Windows pre-installed, there has been a slow initial adoption of new desktop operating systems. Linux is past that stage now, with numerous manufacturers installing Linux and many organizations having five or more years experience with Linux - since installation evolved to graphical user interfaces - or Unix, which has been around for decades. Linux is rapidly gaining popularity as a desktop operating system as it is increasingly used in schools and workplaces and more people are becoming familiar with it.Support for certain new and obscure hardware remains an issue. Though some vendors provide device drivers, many device drivers must be developed by volunteers after the release of the product. Often, this development requires reverse engineering of some sort, as certain manufacturers remain secretive and refuse to provide hardware or firmware specifications for their products. Deliberately non-portable hardware drivers like Winmodems and GDI#GDI_printerWinprinters have been a general problem.There have been conflicting studies of Linux's usability and cost in the past. Microsoft-sponsored studies such as those by IDC have argued that Linux had a higher total cost of ownership (TCO) than Windows. However, Relevantive, the renowned Berlin-based organization specializing in providing consultation to companies on the usability of software and Web services, concluded that the usability of Linux for a set of desktop-related tasks is "equal to Windows XP." Since then, there have been numerous independent studies that show that a modern Linux desktop using Gnome or KDE is on par with or superior to Microsoft Windows.Linux distributions have been criticized for unpredictable development schedules, thus making enterprise users less comfortable with Linux than they might be with other systems (Marcinkowski, 2003). However, some observers claim that the intervals between Linux distribution releases are no worse, and often better, than the project management "schedule slipping" that occurs with other operating systems and with software systems in general.The large number of choices of Linux distributions can also confuse users and software vendors.The paper dwheeler.com - ''Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!'' identifies many quantitative studies of open source software, on topics including market share and reliability, with many studies specifically examining Linux.SeealsoWindows vs. Linux

Installation - wikibooksparInstalling Linux In the past, difficulty of installation was a barrier to wide adoption of Linux-based systems, but the process has been made easier in recent years. Many distributions are at least as easy to install as a comparable version of Microsoft WindowsWindows. It is unnecessary to file license numbers and enter them during installation. Also, personal computers that come with Linux distributions already installed are readily available from numerous vendors, including large mainstream vendors like Hewlett-Packard and Dell. The most common method of installing Linux, supported by all major distributions, is by booting from a CD that contains the installation program and installable software. Such a CD can be burned from a downloaded ISO image, purchased alone for a low price, or can be obtained as part of a box set that may also include manuals and additional commercial software.Some distributions, such as Debian, can be installed from a small set of floppy disks. After a basic system is installed, more software can be added by downloading it from the Internet or using CDs.Other distributions, such as Knoppix, can be run directly from a "live CD" running entirely in random access memoryRAM, rather than installing it to the hard drive. With this, one boots from the CD and can use Linux without making any modification to the contents of the hard drive. Similarly, some minimal distributions, such as tomsrtbt, can be run directly from as little as 1 floppy disk without needing to change the hard drive contents.Still another mode of installation of Linux is to install on a powerful computer to use as a server and to use ordinary less powerful machines (perhaps without hard drives, and having less memory and slower CPUs) as clients over the network. Clients can boot over the network from the server and display results and pass information to the server where all the applications run. A Linux Terminal Server is a single machine to which many clients can connect this way, so one obtains the benefit of installing Linux on many machines for the cost of installing on one. The clients can be ordinary PCs with the addition of the network bootloader on a drive or network interface controller. Variations on this mode include using local drives and computing power to run applications. The cost savings achieved by using thin clients can be invested in greater computing power or storage on the server.Many distributions also support booting over a network, so an installation on a properly configured machine can be done remotely.Anaconda installerAnaconda, one of the more popular installers, is used by Red Hat Linux, Fedora Core and other distributions to simplify the installation process. It is famous for its ability to automatically Partition_(computing)partition a hard drive using the Disk Druid utility.

Installation on an existing platform - Many distribution companies now are sparing no effort to provide users with advanced, easy and specific installations. Some beginners (especially those familiar with Microsoft Windows and Mac OS) may still feel that making the shift can be hard but many solutions have been created to solve this problem. Some let the user install Linux on top of their current system. Consider WinLinux, for example. After downloading the installer (more than 100MB), the user can install Linux just like any other Windows application. The software provides all the needed features; it is a real Linux distribution. The difference is that it is not necessary for the user to leave Windows, since the Linux OS is installed to the Windows hard-disk partition. A Linux boot loader will boot the Linux system when the PC is restarted and the user chooses to boot Linux. Similar approaches include coLinux.Technology of virtual machines (such as Virtual PC or VMware) also enables Linux (or any other OS) to be run inside Windows. The virtual machine software will simulate an isolated environment onto which the Linux system is installed. After everything is done, the virtual machine can be booted just as if it were an independent computer.

Demonstration - The difficulty in demonstrating Linux is still a major obstacle, slowing its adoption as a personal computing platform. Linux User Groups or LUGS, still provide the primary face-to-face forum for demonstration of Linux. Commercial exhibitions provide Linux demonstrations to potential new users, especially corporate buyers. Many commercial distributions are hard to install, but with work, allow someone to re-use an old machine to see what the Linux desktop is like. The approach by Knoppix, which runs Linux off of a CD without disturbing the PC's hard drive, is probably the most successful demonstration tool to date. mepis.org - MEPIS also runs off a CD like Knoppix and they both can also be installed onto a PC like any other Linux distribution. The fastest approach is probably that of Workspot, which uses Virtual Network ComputingVNC to provide a free Linux desktop demo online (available workspot.com - here).

Configuration - Configuration of most system wide settings are stored in a single directory called /etc, while user-specific settings are stored in hidden files in the user's home directory. A few programs use a configuration database instead of files.There are a number of ways to change these settings. The easiest way to do this is by using tools provided by distributions such as Debian's Debconf (software package)debconf, Mandriva LinuxMandriva's Control Center, or SUSE's YaST. Others, like Linuxconf, GNOME System ToolsGnome System Tools, and Webmin, are not distribution-specific. There are also many command line utilities for configuring programs. Since nearly all settings are stored in ordinary Binary and text filestext files they can be configured by any text editor.

Running Windows applications - There are several ways to run applications written for Windows on Linux, with varying levels of success. The popular Wine (software)Wine software, along with the commercial derivatives Crossover Office and Transgaming TechnologiesTransgaming's Cedega create an application compatibility layer by reimplementing the Windows API inside of Linux. Many Windows programs run on Linux at approximately the same speed using these programs, and in some cases run faster. Since these programs are written without use of any Microsoft code, they do not require a Windows license. Although compatibility is improving, in many cases week-by-week, applications that make use of non-standard programming practices can experience problems.A similar alternative to running Windows applications inside Linux is to use the proprietary Win4Lin software, which converts Microsoft's version of the Windows API to run inside Linux rather than reimplementing it from scratch. Since a legal copy of the Microsoft implementation of the Windows API is needed, use of Win4Lin requires a copy of Windows.A third alternative for running Windows applications within Linux is to use a virtual machine program and run the desired application along with the entire virtual Windows operating system. VMware is a proprietary hardware virtualisation program that can run Windows in this way with near-perfect functionality, however this approach can carry a considerable speed and performance penalty. Full CPU emulators (such as QEMU or the slower counterpart Bochs) can be used, though to run a Windows program these emulators will also require a copy of Windows. Aside from the performance difficulties, virtual machine approaches to running Windows applications cannot integrate Windows programs into the Linux desktop, as they must instead run inside the virtual Windows desktop.A fourth alternative is to run the Windows applications on a Windows machine and use VNC to view it on the Linux Desktop. This is a good solution if you have one application that you cannot migrate, and an old PC. It also works well if many people (using Linux) need occasional access to Windows applications, and can share a single Windows PC for that purpose. This solution is particularly useful if you have a Windows only item of hardware, such as a dongle, custom decoder card, or some USB devices.

Programming on Linux - A number of compilers are available for Linux.The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) comes with the vast majority of distributions. GCC supports C programming languageC, C plus plusC++ and Java programming languageJava among other languages.There are also a number of IDEs available for Linux, including the famous Emacs. Some of the most popular are Anjuta, KDevelop, Glade Interface DesignerGlade (actually a user interface designer) and Eclipse (computing)Eclipse.

Support - Technical support is provided by commercial suppliers and by other Linux users, usually in online forums, newsgroups and mailing lists. Linux User Groups (LUGs) all over the world assist many users, mostly locally, and often also hold "installfests" where users can install Linux with a nearby helping hand.The business model of commercial suppliers is generally dependent on charging for support, especially for business users. Third-party commercial support is also readily available.

References -

Glyn Moody: ''Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution'', Perseus Publishing, ISBN 0-713-99520-3

Gedda. R. (2004). Linux breaks desktop barrier in 2004: Torvalds. Retrieved January 16, 2004 from linuxworld.com.au

Mackenzie, K. (2004). Linux Torvalds Q&A. Retrieved January 19, 2004 from australianit.news.com.au

dwheeler.com - ''More Than a Gigabuck: Estimating GNU/Linux's Size'' by David A. Wheeler

people.debian.org - ''Counting potatoes: the size of Debian 2.2'' by Jesús M. González-Barahona et al.

dwheeler.com - ''Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!'' by David A. Wheeler

See also - wikibooksparLinux Guide wikibooksparLinux For Newbies wikibooksparLinux software howtos Guide to UNIXchapter=Linuxname=Linux

General -

Access control list

List of Linux distributions

Comparison of Linux distributions

IPodLinux

Shell account

LiveCD

PS2 Linux

Vmlinux

Linux consolidation

Lists -

List of file systems

List of Unix programs

List of Linux books

Magazines -

Linux Journal

Linux Magazine

Linux Format

External links - SisterlinksLinux General

linux.org - Linux.org — contains comprehensive information and resources about Linux.

counter.li.org - The Linux Counter — estimates Linux usage around the world

tldp.org - The Linux Documentation Project

*tldp.org - Categorized List of HOWTOsDistribution related

eedok.voidofmind.com - Distro Quiz — a test that recommends a distribution based on the answers.

linux.org - Linux Online — distributions and FTP Sites (sortable by categories)

distrowatch.com - DistroWatch.com — distribution information & announcements.

linuxiso.org - Linux ISO — comprehensive but rather outdated site which has ISO download links for several distributions.

systemdisc.com - SystemDisc.com — offers a large selection of Linux and BSD distributions. Miscellaneous

netfiles.uiuc.edu - History of Linux

lynucs.org - Linux screenshots — a gallery of Linux screenshots.

shells.bezeu.com - Linux shell list

mywebplanetonline.com - A Linux & Open-Source Online Portal by Webplanet Online

linux-news.net - Linux Newslinux-distro Category:Linux!*Category:UnixCategory:Computi ng? platformsCategory:Free software operating systemsCategory:Operating !systemsals:Linuxar:ل 10;نكسbg:Г� �У/Линуксca:Linuxcs:Lin uxda:Linuxde:Linuxel:Linuxeo:L inuksoes:Linuxet:Linuxeu:Linux fa:لینو ;کسfi:Linuxfr:Linu xgl:Linuxhe:לי 04;וקסhr:Lin uxhu:Linuxia:Linuxid:Linuxis:L inuxit:Linuxja:Linuxka:ლ ინუქ&# 4321;იko:리눅 ;스ku:Linuxlb:Linuxli:Li nuxlt:Linuxlv:GNU/Linuxmk: 51;инук ;сmg:Linuxms:Linuxnds:Li nuxnl:GNU/Linuxnn:Linuxno:Linu xpa:ਲੀਨਕਸpl:Linuxpt: Linuxro:Linuxru:GNU/Linuxsimpl e:Linuxsh:Linuxsk:Linuxsl:Linu xsr:Линm 1;ксsv:GNU/Linuxta :லினக்ஸ்th:Ū 1;ินุก ซ์tl:GNU/Linuxtr:L inuxvi:Linuxzh:Linuxzh-min-nan :Linux

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http://www.freesoft.jo/

Yep-Media.de - Webhosting, Domains
Yep Media Webhosting. Wir bieten unter Anderem Webhosting, Domains, Internet-Shops, 24/7 Kunden-Support, Internet-Service-Provider zu günstigen Preisen!
http://www.yep-media.de

OZ5LKO
Hamradio site with lots of links
http://www.oz5lko.dk/

Base Systems Inc.
Manufacturer and developer of dictation and transcription hardware and software. Web site contains description of products, support, and contact information.
http://www.basesys.com/

Xorcom
Xorcom developes products based on, and complemetary to Asterisk Open Source PBX, including complete PBX solutions, analog telephony interfaces and more.
http://www.xorcom.com/

Landibase
Simple technology to develop www/internet/LAN oriented database applications using Java and C/C++, for Linux,Solaris,Windows.
http://www.landibase.com/

Eviltime.com
Mixed home-brew and redistributed material about IT security and coding..
http://www.eviltime.com/

FUTUREtec GmbH
A company, operating mainly in the field of applied informatics, as well as Technology Transfer, Dissemination, Exploitation and International Marketing of research results in the European context. Our team includes experts in the fields of information technology, document logistics, transfer of technology, market research and development, socio economis, cross-cultural issues, marketing strategies and project management.
http://www.futuretec-de.com/

The best Software to buy
We are a value added Software House with competence in differnt matters.
http://www.megasoft.de/

Corsi Linux
Con i nostri corsi di formazione accresciamo ogni giorno le vostre competenze per rendervi sempre più capaci e indipendenti
http://www.corsi-linux.com/

Sansanet Web Hosting y Diseño Web Profesional
Prestador de Servicios en Internet.
http://www.sansanet.cl/

ADSL4Linux.de
ADSL4Linux - LINUX,Installation, Konfiguration, Basiswissen
http://www.adsl4linux.de

www.csduw.de
CSDUW - Die Firma Computer Software Dienstleistungen in Taunusstein bietet individuellen Service, Betreuung und Beratung, Schulung, Installation und Vertrieb von Softwareprodukten für kleine Unternehmen und Privatpersonen. Wir erstellen und pflegen individuelle Internetseiten, Web-Anwendungen und Datenbank-Lösungen.
http://www.csduw.de/

Software Engineering Logic Emulation Systems
Hardware and software- engineering for securety applications ( people, engins, tecnishens, konstructions ... ).Special applications for high securety for humans and processing.
http://www.seles.de

FlashWebHost.com - Windows, Linux Web Hosting, Domain Name Registration, Site Designing, Kerala, Kochi, Trivandrum
Reliable windows and linux web hosting in Kerala. Cost effective Web Designing. Low Cost Domain Name Registeration. Perl, PHP, MySQL Scripting, E-Commerce Solution
http://www.flashwebhost.com/

Netzwerk und Computertechnik
Hier finden Sie alles über Netzwerk und Computertechnik. Digitalphotographie und diverse Bilder. Tips und Tricks.
http://www.webnode.ch/

NetDirector - Open Source Configuration Management
NetDirector is an open source configuration management tool designed to manage open source software on groups of servers silmultaneously. NetDirector can manage sendmail, postfix, apache, samba, NFS, DHCP, Bind, and many other features of Linux and Unix operating systems.
http://www.netdirector.org

Web Hosting
Web Hosting
http://www.shivaminfo.com/

Unix-bg
Unix Bulgaria
http://www.unix-bg.org/

Künstliche Inteligenz für dir Politik
Entwicklungs-Domain für KI- Systeme für die Anwendung zur Konkurenz der Politiker und ihrer Gremien.
http://www.KI-Politiker.de

Zarafa Outlook sharing
With Zarafa Outlook you can share your email, contacts, calendar items via your Outlook and a webaccess on Linux server.
http://www.zarafa.com

NyroDev : Analyste Développeur PHP
Cedric Nirousset : Conception, Analyse et Développement de sites web.
http://www.nyrodev.com/

jt-webservice.de
EDV Beratung, Netzwerk Installation und Wartung, Linux Server, WebDesign Internet Seiten, WebShops mit Warenwirtschaft Anbindung
http://www.jt-webservice.de/

linuxmega, Tschings Themenkatalog
Linuxlinks, Linkkatalog, Info ueber Geld und Zins, Freigeld, Handyshop, Telefonbuch, Tarifinfos, Lotto, Kino. http://www.linuxmega.de/tsching http://www.linuxmega.de/handys/handy.html http://www.linuxmega.de/chinthai/ http://www.linuxmega.de/geld/geld2.html
http://www.linuxmega.de/

insu^tv
televisione pirata napoli
http://www.insutv.it/

Templex.net
This is a security portal, offering essays and papers about networking, operating systems, exploits, firewalls, cryptography and more. It includes some useful tools and a discussion board.
http://www.templex.net/

Ebticar Host
Domain Name & Hosting Web & Design ...
http://www.e4host.com

insecure.ws
hacking, coding, and fun
http://www.insecure.ws/

TimicHost.net - Affordably Intelligent Web Hosting Solutions
Affordable, reliable, and friendly web hosting services starting at just $9.95 a month. All accounts come with a web based control panel, PHP, MySql, email auto responders, and much more.
http://www.timichost.net/

Klinux embedded and real time linux for industrial applications
Klinux is an italian GNU/Linux embedded distribution GPL Open Source for industrial applications. It includes an integrated development environment (IDE) and debugging instruments for embedded and real time systems. Klinux is based on kernel 2.6.x and 2.4.x. It supports all the processor families x86, ARM, PPC.
http://www.klinux.org/

Lynx Education Center
One of most powerful IT-education center in Russia.
http://www.unixedu.ru/

COMPUTERS
computer repair, new systems, network, updates, windows, linux, unix
http://www.repairmypc.com/

TriviaSecurity
For all your security needs - Dedicated in providing the latest security headlines, exploits codes, live security war games, general computing, programming, web-development, phreaking info, downloads, tutorials, articles, virus info, tools, free proxies and a lot more.
http://www.triviasecurity.net/

Projecto Adamastor
Projecto Português de Manutenção e Execução de Áreas Linux
http://www.adamastor.org/

TUXMAN The Linux Fan Shop
We have Linux Fan stuff and a lot of PC Hard and Software. Here you can get a lot of Linux distribution. Our store is located in Berlin/Germany.
http://www.tuxman.de/

Linux in Industrial Control and Automation
Linux is beeing adopted moe and more by manufacturers of automation and control equippment. This site tries to create a list of porjects releated to this industry.
http://www.linuxincontrol.org/

Web development and design
Specialize in web deployed solutions, ranging from customized e-commerce to open source implementations.
http://www.wincliff.com/

Gelato Federation
The Gelato Federation is the global technical community dedicated to advancing Linux® on the Intel® Itanium® platform through collaboration, education, and leadership. Co-founded by HP and seven of the world's leading research institutions, the Gelato Federation, also known as Gelato, is working to fulfill this mission by bringing together those developing and using Linux on Itanium for the purpose of fostering Itanium-specific research, focus groups, and collaborative discussions. An open exchange of ideas and solutions is nurtured through diverse lines of communication, including interactive areas of the Gelato portal, several interest-specific mailing lists, and regular meetings and conferences. Finally, Gelato facilitates the development and dissemination of Itanium-specific, open-source solutions, including a complete and robust tool chain. Gelato invites participation from all interested organizations and individuals.
http://www.gelato.org/

ExsIT SPRL
Votre magasin d'informatique à Bruxelles
http://www.exsit.be/

Centada
Centada is a premier Internet Presence Provider offering innovative products at competitive prices. It is a provider of Linux and Microsoft web hosting services, domain name registrations, e-mail solutions, e-commerce packages and dedicated servers for personal and business websites.
http://www.centada.com/

onthespothosting.net
2GB Disk Space 60 GB Transfer just $4.95
http://www.onthespothosting.net/

elcon electronic control
building automation
http://www.elcon.hu/

-= servers.hu - professzionális internet megoldások
A servers.hu oldalain található: Magyar tárhely szolgáltatás, webdesign, perl cgi scriptek futtatása, web, internet, host, hosting service, A legjobb szolgáltatások a lehető legjobb áron! Tárhely szolgáltatások /web, php, email,mysql,.../ Domain szolgáltatások /regisztráció, fenntartás, stb./ E-mail szolgáltatások /levelezőlista, virtuális email, hírlevél/ Server szolgáltatások /felkészítés, elhelyezés, Linux CD-k/ Minden szolgáltatásunk megrendelhető kedvező, havi fizetéssel, illetve éves fizetéssel is. Rendeljen akár azonnal, online rendszerünk segítségével! Úgy érzi, túl magasak a havi díjak? Szeretné, ha válogathatna a lehetőségek közül, vagy komplett megoldást keres? Tekintse meg ajánlatunkat!
http://www.servers.hu/

Cheap web hosting by BSWEBHOSTING
cheap web hosting including windows web hosting, linux web hosting, reseller web hosting and mssql web hosting in India
http://www.bswebhosting.com/

AboutPC:de Computergeschichte - Betiebssysteme und mehr
Linux, Hilfe, Betriebssysteme, Geschichte, Fireball79, Berlin, Marco Gesche, aboutpc.de,privat, bilder, computer, geschichte, deutsch, windows, online, tarife, news, nachrichten, informationen, MG79, Yast, Tux, Winlinux,Windows, MacOS, Commodore, PET, Sinclair, Apple,Spectrum, ZX81, Hardware, Peddel,VC 20, Lisa, Apple IIe, Trojaner, Wuermer, Anisbomben, Polymorphe, Berlin, Brandenburg, Waldesruh
http://www.aboutpc.de

taskit GmbH
Entwickelt und fertigt Produkte der Embedded Computer Technologie (ECT). Embedded Computer sind Soft- und Hardware basierte Steuersysteme (Gehirne), welche in Maschinen und Geraete integriert werden.
http://www.embeddedsystem.de/

Giordy's Blog
Il mondo dell'opensource
http://www.giordy.org/

Configuration Unix based Systems
Help w/ Configuration from Linux/Solaris based Workstations/networks
http://www.internetzugang-hilfe.de/

Software Expert
A group of loosely associates ready to tackle you software project.
http://www.bbnj.us/

marksware R.Marks Computer
MarksWare - Ronnie Marks Computertechnik: Softwareentwicklung, Webdesign, Datenbanken, Netzwerktechnik, Hardware und Computersysteme für Enthusiasten zu günstigen Preisen
http://www.marksware.de/

I'Form : Consulting et Centre de formation informatique
I'Form Consulting et Formation informatique. Partenaire agréé Microsoft, Linux et Lotus. Toulouse - France
http://www.iform.fr/

PCBurn
PCBurn has reviews of Linux hardware, gaming, books, and software along with a healthy selection of how-tos and an always up-to-date news frontpage.
http://www.pcburn.com/

Irontec: Internet y Sistemas sobre GNU Linux
Empresa orienta al desarrollo de aplicaciones orientadas a Internet y la integración de sistemas GNU / Linux. Expertos en VoIP, certificados por Digium.
http://www.irontec.com

Homepage of Christian Strahberger
Information source on various topics ranging from natural sciences to wine
http://www.strahberger.de/

100% GRATUIT ! HEBERGEMENT-PHP,Mysql ,Hebergement Frontpage
HEBERGEMENT -PHP,Mysql , Extensions Frontpage et la gestion avec PLESK en ligne. et demandez nous vos 10 Mo d'espace web offerts sans pub!
http://www.azur-creaweb.com/

WSUN Technologies - Enterprise Standard Web Solutions
domain registration, web design, software development, network architecture, reverse engineering, reverse engineer, dial-up, dial up, dsl, internet access, aps, software design, mainframe circuit boards, mission, technical, highest standard, wifi network, hotzone, hotspot, radius, port saint lucie, florida, roanoke virginia, broadband, ethernet adapter, laptop, desktop, air waves, lan, modem, 56k, integrated, wifi coverage, wifi map, free software downloads, network uptime, webhosting, web hosting, hosting, design, website management, outsource, hosting package, linux, redhat, sql, php, free email, free church web sites, free non profit hosting
http://www.wsuntech.com

Edo home page
Pagina de Eduardo Romero
http://www.edo.cl/

PROCOM Costa Rica ; Hosting de alto nivel, Desarrollo de aplicaciones, Soporte TI y Consultoria
Costa Rica Web Hosting, IT Support Company
http://www.procomcr.com/

Rpv Reports
Generate reports in any programming language and any operating system
http://www.rpvreport.com/

Net.AD which collateralizes fairness and neutrality
Only our company's mere standard conformity evaluation or mere attestation acquisition are not the target business proprietor object. It carries out it being compatible in safety and security from justice and a neutral disinterested position, and is 1. corporate governance 2. compliance to an organism. It embodies.
http://www.jpad.net/

Linux howto
linux apache routing mailserver dhcp samba howto nfs postfix masquerade nis
http://www.visiotologie.org/

Acapela Group
The first European speech group, providing speech solutions with high quality voices.
http://www.acapela-group.com/

Quality Web Hosting
We specialize in ASP hosting packages. All of our Windows accounts include support for ASP hosting, ASP.NET hosting, Frontpage hosting and Microsoft Access databases. ZestHost provide a range of first class US based web hosting packages. We realize that even the most experienced web developers enjoy the peace of mind knowing that they can quickly receive useful support from their host. For this reason all packages include Obsessive Support as standard.
http://www.zesthost.com/

linuxuse.de
Website from Berlin/Germany, that is dedicated to help users to deploy free software on workstation and desktop.
http://www.linuxuse.de/

Webfruits CMS - IMB Webdevelopment
IMB Webdevelopment bietet mit Webfruits CMS die All-in-One E-Business-Lösung an
http://www.webfruits.net/

Web Hosting, Domain Name and Web Design Services by Wayinfotech
Web Hosting Services by www.Wayinfotech.com: Domain Name, Web Hosting, Web Design, Web Solutions, Web Site Promotion, Software Development. USER FRIENDLY.
http://www.wayinfotech.com

Handheld Computer Software
Software products for handheld computers.
http://www.jayts.cx/

In-Order POS system
In-Order POS system is a reliable state of the art food and beverage management system for the hospitality industry
http://www.in-order.com/

Linux Services Hardware and support
Linux trained and certified professionals Consulting and development services to create optimal and cost-effective solutions Linux certified products, including powerful and cost-effective Linux laptops
http://www.linuxcertified.com/

Netzwerke und Web-Design Dipl. Ing. Bernd Scheler - wir bleiben dran, bis alles läuft
Netzwerke, Computer, Service, EDV, DSL, VOIP, Telefon, Planung, Beratung, Internetauftritte, Hard- und Softwareentwicklung, kostengünstig und professionell
http://www.web25.de/

Nigerian Linux Users Group
The Nigerian Linux Users' Group (NGLUG) aims to promote Linux and Open Source awareness in Nigeria by creating opportunities for interested likeminded individuals to contribute and share their knowledge with one another via meetings, social events and mailing lists.
http://www.nglug.org/

Pippo.com - Just another building in the cyberspace
Marco Iannacone's personal website. Some interesting italian documents on the Internet, Linux and security.
http://www.pippo.com/

Knowledge Peak
Knowledge Peak is a training and consulting organization. We specialize in delivering solutions around ITIL, Business Process, Security, and many technical and development areas.
http://www.kpeak.com/

Free Web menus
Free Web Menus to help you to create navgation menus for your website
http://www.allbuttons.com/

REMAGINE - Comprehensive Business Solution
REMAGINE is a full service marketing firm that specializes in website design, graphic creation, site hosting, software development, internet technologies, communications, and branding strategies.
http://www.remagine.com

Racer free car simulation
Free racing simulation software with realistic physics. Runs on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X.
http://www.racer.nl/

Linux.org
Comprehensive information and resources about the Linux Operating System.
http://www.linux.org/

Linux.com
A Linux portal and directory.
http://www.linux.com/

Red Hat, Inc.
Develops and provides open source software products and services. (Nasdaq: RHAT).
http://www.redhat.com/

Debian GNU/Linux
Official site. One of the most important distributions, uses only Free Software as defined by FSF. Descriptions (Social Contract, partners, donations), news, sources, packages, documents, support, developer corner.
http://www.debian.org/

Linux Journal
The monthly magazine of the Linux community, promoting the use of Linux worldwide.
http://linuxjournal.com/