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a republic in southern North America became independent from Spain in 1810
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The United Mexican States or Mexico (Spanish language Spanish: ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos'' or ''México;'' regarding the use of the variant spelling ''Méjico'', see section #The nameThe name below) is a country located in North America, bordered by the United States to the north, and Belize and Guatemala to the southeast. It is the northernmost and westernmost country in Latin America, and also the most populous Spanish languageSpanish-speaking country in the world.
History - ''Main article: History of Mexico''
Pre-Hispanic Times - Hunter-Gatherer peoples are thought to have discovered and inhabited Mexico more than 28,000 years ago. Ancient Mexicans began to selectively breed corn plants around 8,000 B.C. Evidence shows the explosion of pottery works by 2300 B.C. and the beginning of intensive farming between 1800 and 1500 BC. For more than 3,000 years, Mexico was the site of several Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec, the Olmec, Teotihuacan, the Toltec, Mixtec, Zapotec and the Maya civilizationMayan.These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions: pyramid-temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, writing, highly-accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive agriculture, engineering, an abacus, a complex theology, and the wheel.Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. These very early and ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives, even before they possessed civilization. In fact, the later Mexican civilizations would all carefully build their cities and ceremonial centers according to specific astronomical events. At different points in time, three different Mexican cities were the largest cities in the world: Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula. These cities, among several others, blossomed as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and theology. In turn, they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures. ]] ]]While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and prestige, Mexico had four major, unifying civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan, Toltec, and the AztecMexica. These four civilizations extended their reach across Mexico and beyond like no others. They consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these four civilizations over the span of 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all found themselves within these four spheres of influence.Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica, or AztecAztecs, as they were sometimes called in memory of Aztlán, the starting point of their tribes wanderings, never thought of themselves as anything but heirs of the brilliant civilizations that had preceded them. For them, highly-civilized arts, sculpture, architecture, engraving, feather-mosiac work, and the invention of the calendar were due to the former inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs, who reached the height of their civilization in the tenth and eleventh centuries.The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were the first people in the world to practice mandatory education for all people, regardless of gender, rank, or station. There were two types of schools: the ''telpochcalli'', for practical and military studies, and the ''calmecac'', for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas.The Aztecs' religious beliefs were based on a fear that the universe would cease functioning without a constant offering of human sacrifice. This belief was common throughout nahuatl people. As a result, Aztec warfare was conducted with an aim to only ''injure'' the enemy, so that he could later be sacrificed, and weapons were constructed with this in mind. This penchant for human sacrifice proved to be the undoing of the Aztecs, for when they confronted the SpainSpaniards, who fought to the death, their less effective weapons made resistance difficult. In order to aquire captives in time of peace, the Aztec resorted to ritual warfare, or flower war. Tlaxcalteca and other nahuatl nations were forced into such wars, so they joined the Spaniard forces again the Aztec. The small Spanish force was reinforced with thousands of indian allies, who were schooled on European warfare.
The Spanish Era - The Spanish colonization of the Americasarrival of the Spanish in the early 16th century and their defeat of the Mexica in 1521 marked the beginning of the 300 year-long colonial period of Mexico as New Spain. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it would take decades of continous war to pacify Mesoamerica. Particularly fierce were the "Chichimeca wars" in the north of Mexico (1576-1606). The colonists brought with them the Catholic faith, to which the population apparently converted rapidly, but soon they found the natives had adopted "the god of the heavens", as they called it, as just one of their gods. While it was an important god, because it was the god of the conquerors, they did not see why they had to abandon their old beliefs. As a result, a second wave of missionaries began a process attempting to completely erase the old beliefs, and thus wiped out many aspects of Mesoamerican culture. Hundreds of thousands of codex were destroyed, priests and teachers were persecuted, and the temples and statues of the gods were destroyed. The Mesoamerican education system was set aside and replaced by church education; even some foods asociated with religion, like amaranto, were forbidden. Eventually, the natives were declared minors, and forbidden to read and write, so they would always need a white man in charge of them to be responsible of their indoctrination. Although officially they could not became slaves, the system, known as ''encomienda'', came to signify the oppression and exploitation of natives, although its originators did not set out with such intent. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the indigenous peoples, Bishop Bartolome de las Casas suggested bringing black slaves to replace them. Bartolome later repented when he saw the treatment given to the black slaves. Unlike most English-speaking colonists of North America, Spanish colonists married the natives, and were even encouraged to do so by Queen Isabella during the earliest days of colonization (in Cuba, specifically). The first Spanish colonists were mainly male, so they took native women, and sometimes black women, although rarely. After the native population was decimated by epidemics and forced labor, black slaves were imported, and for a time they even outnumbered the white population. However, they eventually mixed with the population. There are still a few black communities (see Afro-Mexican), but few modern Mexicans are aware of this. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage, a vast class of people known as "Mestizos" and mulatos came into being, of Amerindian, black, and Spanish descent. But even if mixes were allowed, the white population tried to keep their status. A system was created to keep each mix in a different social level. This was "El sistema de castas" (the caste system). Each diferent mix had a name and a diferent privileges or prohibitions. There were even two different kind of whites, those born in Spain, or "peninsulares", and in a lower level, those born in America or "criollos". Mestizos and mulatos were next, and then the other mixes. In this system, native americans had the lower status, even lower than free black people. The spanish "peninsulares" tried by all means to keep their status, even if they took native women. Those who could afford also tried to have a Spanish wife, who was sent to Spain to give birth, thus preventing their children became criollos. Mestizos and criollos were not allowed in the upper levels of the goverment, and eventually they joined forces for the independence of México. With independence, the caste system and slavery were abolished.Mestizos, while they no longer have a separate legal status from other groups, comprise approximately 60% of the population. In modern México, mestizo has became more a cultural term, since a native american that abandons his traditional ways is considered a mestizo, also most Afromexicans prefer to be considered mestizo, since they feel more indentified with this group.During the following centuries, under Spanish rule, a new culture developed that combined the customs and traditions of the indigenous peoples with that of Catholic Spain. Numerous churches and other buildings were constructed in the Spanish style, and cities were named after various saints and objects of veneration, such as "San Luis Potosí" (after St. Louis) and "Vera Cruz" ("True Cross").Spanish settlers brought with them smallpox, typhus, and other diseases. Most of the settlers had developed an immunity from childhood, but the indigenous peoples had not. There were three separate epidemics that decimated the population: Smallpox (1520-1521), measles ( 1545-1548) and typhus (1576-1581). Of the estimated 15 to 20 million of the original prehispanic population, less than two million survived. The New Spain of the end of XVI century was an underpopulated country with abandoned cities, which would be the main cause of collapse of the Mesoamerican cultures.
Mexican Republic - On September 16, 1810, independence from Spain was declared by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest in the small town of Dolores HidalgoDolores, causing a long Mexican War of Independencewar that eventually led to independence in 1821 and the creation of the Mexican EmpireFirst Mexican Empire. After independence, Spanish possessions in Central America which also proclaimed independence were all incorporated into Mexico from 1822 to 1823, with the exception of Chiapas. Soon after achieving its independence from Spain, the Mexican government, in an effort to populate its sparsely-settled hinterlands, awarded land grants in a remote area of the northernmost state of Coahuila y Tejas to hundreds of immigrant families from the United States, on the condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and assume Mexican citizenship. It also forbade the importation of slaves, a condition that, like the others, was largely ignored.The Empire soon fell to rebellious republican forces led by Antonio López de Santa Anna. The first Republic was formed with Guadalupe Victoria as its first president, followed in office by Santa Anna. As president, in 1834 Santa Anna abrogated the 1824 Constitution of Mexicofederal constitution, causing insurgencies in the southern state of Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas. Both areas sought independence from the Mexican government. While negotiations eventually brought Yucatán to again recognize Mexican sovereignty, Santa Anna's army turned to the northern rebellion. The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans and led mainly by relatively recently-arrived English languageEnglish-speaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico at Washington-on-the-Brazos, giving birth to the Republic of Texas. Texas won its independence in 1836, further reducing the territory of the fledgling republic. In the 1840s, Mexico was invaded and defeated by the United States, which demanded and received roughly one-half of the country's remaining territory, from which were formed the modern states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and most of Arizona, New Mexico, and Colorado (see Mexican-American War).In the 1860s, the country again suffered a military occupation, this time by France, seeking to establish the Habsburg Archduke Maximilian_of_MexicoFerdinand Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of Mexico, with support from the Roman Catholic clergy and conservative Creoles. This Second Mexican Empire was fought off by then-president of the Republic, the Zapotec Benito Juárez, with diplomatic and logistical support from the United States and the military expertise of General Porfirio Díaz. General Ignacio Zaragoza defeated the French Army (arguably the most powerful in the world at the time) at the city of Puebla, PueblaPuebla on May 5, 1862, celebrated as ''Cinco de Mayo'' ever since. However, after his death, the city was lost in early 1863, following a renewed French attack which penetrated as far as Mexico City, forcing President Juárez to organize an itinerant government. Napoleon III of France, Emperor of France, imposed Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico from 1864 to 1867. In mid-1867, following repeated losses in battle to the Republican ("Liberal") Army, Maximilian was captured and executed, along with his last loyal generals, in Santiago de QuerétaroQuerétaro. From then on, Juárez remained in office until his death in 1872. After Juárez's death, Mexico experienced economic growth under the conservative and pro-European rule of Porfirio Díaz. Foreign investment allowed the development of the Petroleumoil industry and the construction of a railroad system across the country. This period of relative peace and prosperity is known as the "Porfiriato". His mandate, however, was mostly undemocratic and benefited the middle and upper classes, while the Amerindian indigenous population continued to live in precarious conditions. Growing social inequalities, restricted freedom of the Journalismpress, and his insistence to be reelected for a fifth term led to massive protests. His fraudulent victory in the 1910 elections sparked the Mexican Revolution. Revolutionary forces defeated the federal army, but were left with internal struggles, leaving the country in conflict for two more decades. The creation of the National Revolutionary Party (which later became the Institutional Revolutionary Party or PRI), in 1929 ended the struggles, uniting all generals and combatants of the revolution. During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth, and historians call this period "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. This was in spite of falling foreign confidence in investment, first through the assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalisation of the oil industry into Pemex. However the management of the economy collapsed several times afterwards. Accused many times of fraud, the PRI's candidates held almost all public offices until the end of the 20th century. It was not until the 1980s that the PRI lost the first List of Mexican state governorsstate governorship, an event that marked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony. Through the electoral reforms started by president Carlos Salinas de Gortari and consolidated by president Ernesto Zedillo, by the mid 1990s the PRI had lost its majority in Congress of MexicoCongress. In 2000, after seventy years, the PRI lost a presidential elections to a candidate of the National Action Party (Mexico)National Action Party (PAN), Vicente Fox.On September 19, 1985, an earthquake measuring approximately 8.0 on the Richter scale struck Michoacán and inflicted severe damage on Mexico City. Estimates of the number of dead range from 6,500 to 30,000. (See Great Mexican Earthquake.)On January 1 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement, joining the United States of America and Canada in a large and prosperous economic bloc. On March 23, 2005, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America was signed by the elected leaders of those countries.
Government and politics - ''Main articles: Federal government of the United Mexican StatesGovernment of Mexico,Politics of Mexico'' The 1917 Constitution of Mexico1917 Constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Historically, the executive is the dominant branch, with power vested in the President of Mexicopresident, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. Congress of MexicoCongress has played an increasingly important role since 1997, when opposition parties first formed a majority in the legislature. The president also legislates by executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from Congress. The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a six-year term and may not hold office a second time. There is no vice-president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional "emergency" president is elected by Congress, whose first task is to summon the Congress for a session to choose an interim president; the first task of that interim president is to call for elections within the next 18 months. However, in the event of a very short unavailability of the president (e.g. in the case of minor surgery) the executive power is handed to the president of the Supreme Court of Justice of the NationSupreme Court, who at the same time relinquishes temporarily his role as such.On July 2, 2000, Vicente Fox of the opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by the National Action Party (Mexico)National Action Party (PAN), was elected president. Fox began his six-year term on December 1, 2000. His victory ended the Institutional Revolutionary Party's (PRI) 71-year hold on the presidency.The three most important political parties in Mexico are the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the National Action Party (Mexico)National Action Party (PAN), and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD).
Political divisions - Main article: States of Mexico''See also: Mexican state name etymologies.'' Mexico is divided into 31 states (''estados'') and a federal district. Each state has its own constitution and its citizens elect a List of Mexican state governorsgovernor as well as representatives to their respective state congresses.
The Mexican Federal DistrictFederal District is a special political division in Mexico, where the national capital, Mexico City, is located. It enjoys more limited local rule than the nation's "free and sovereign states": only since 1997 have its citizens been able to elect a Head of Government of the Federal DistrictHead of Government, whose powers are still more curtailed than those of a state governor. Much of the capital city's metropolitan area overflows the limits of the Federal District.
Major cities - The following is a list of the biggest Metropolitan Areas of Mexico in order of population:#Mexico City, Mexican Federal DistrictDistrito Federal (22.0 million)#Guadalajara, Jalisco (4.7 million)#Monterrey, Nuevo León (3.6 million)#Puebla, Puebla (2.6 million)#Tijuana, Baja California (1.5 million)#León, Guanajuato (1.2 million)#Toluca, México (1.2 million)#Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua (1.1 million)#Torreón, Coahuila (1.1 million)#San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí (0.8 million)#Mérida, Yucatán (0.8 million)#Santiago de Querétaro, Querétaro (0.8 million)#Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes (0.7 million)#Cuernavaca, Morelos (0.7 million)#Chihuahua, Chihuahua (0.7 !million):Populati on? figures according to INEGI (National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Information) 2000
Geography - in the state of Chihuahua]]''Main article: Geography of Mexico''Situated in the southwestern part of mainland North America and roughly triangular in shape, Mexico stretches more than 3000 km from northwest to southeast. Its width is varied, from more than 2000 km in the north and less than 220 km at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in the south.Mexico is bordered by the United States to the north, and Belize and Guatemala to the southeast. Mexico is about one-fourth the size of the United States. Baja California (peninsula)Baja California in the west is an 1,250-km peninsula and forms the Gulf of California. In the east are the Gulf of Mexico and the Bay of Campeche, which is formed by Mexico's other peninsula, the Yucatán. The center of Mexico is a great, high plateau, open to the north, with mountain chains on the east and west and with ocean-front lowlands lying outside of them. (See !List_of_mountains#Mexico list of mountains in Mexico). The terrain and climate vary from rocky deserts in the north to tropical rain forest in the south. Mexico's major rivers include the Rio GrandeRío Bravo del Norte (Rio Grande) and the Usumacinta RiverUsumacinta on its northern and southern borders, respectively, together with the Río GrijalvaGrijalva, Río BalsasBalsas, Río PánucoPánuco, and Río YaquiYaqui in the interior.
Economy - monument in the heart of Mexico City.]]''Main article: Economy of Mexico''According to the World Bank, Mexico is the 12th nation in the world in regards to Gross domestic productGDP and the highest per capita income in that region; and is firmly established as an upper middle-income country. Since the 1994 economic crisis in Mexicoeconomic debacle of 1994–1995 the country has made an impressive recovery, building a diversified economy and improving infrastructure. According to the director for Colombia and Mexico of the World Bank, the population below the poverty level has decreased from 24.2% to 17.6% in the general population and from 42% to 27.9% in rural areas ? !estadis.eluniversal.com.mx . Mexico has a free-market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 1999. The administration of President Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de LeónErnesto Zedillo (1994–2000) continued a policy of privatizationprivatizing and expanding competition in sea ports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports which was initiated by his predecessors Miguel de la Madrid and Carlos Salinas de GortariCarlos Salinas.A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996–1999. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth, accompanied by increased employment and higher wages. Mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Income distribution is very unequal, with the top 20% of income earners accounting for 55% of income.Following 6.9% growth in 2000, real Gross Domestic ProductGDP fell 0.3% in 2001, with the US slowdown the principal cause. Positive developments in 2001 included a drop in inflation to 6.5%, a sharp fall in interest rates, and a strong Mexican pesopeso that appreciated 5% against the US dollar. Trade with the United StatesUS and Canada has tripled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Mexico has opened its markets to free trade as no other country in the world, having lifted its trade barriers with more than 40 countries in 12 Foreign affairs of MexicoFree Trade Agreements, including Japan and the European Union. However more than 85% of the trade is still done with the United States. Government authorities expect that by putting more than 90% of trade under free trade agreements with different countries Mexico will lessen its dependence on the US. The government is seeking to sign an additional agreement with Mercosur.
Demographics - , Oaxaca de Juárez]] street]]''Main article: Demographics of Mexico''With an estimated 2005 population of about !estadis.eluniversal.com.mx - 106.5 million, Mexico is the most populous Spanish languageSpanish-speaking country in the world.Mexico is ethnically and culturally diverse. According to the CIA World Factbook, about 60% of the population is mestizo (mixed Amerindian and white), another 30% is Amerindian or predominantly Amerindian, and 9% is Whiteswhite (or of European descent). The remaining 1% includes Afro-Mexicans and others. Mexico is also home for many other Latin American groups: mostly ArgentinaArgentines, but also Brazilians, Nicaraguans, Cubans, and Colombians. The PRI governments in power for most of the 20th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries. Mexico also has a sizeable population of Asians numbering around 200,000, many of them being Chinese and Japanese. There are also a small amount of Lebanese. According to the Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas ("The National Council for the Development of Indigenous People") the Amerindian population in Mexico is approximately !estadis.eluniversal.com.mx - 12.7 million. However, the Mexican government does not collect racial information during censuses. In 2004, the INEGINational Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatic had estimated this figure to be 12,089,094 of indigenous people of which, more than one million do not speak Spanish and almost five million are bilingual (inegi.gob.mx - INEGI, 2004).Judging by the proportion of people speaking indigenous languages the states with a higher proportion of indigenous people are Yucatán (37.3%), Oaxaca (37.1%), Chiapas (24.6%) and Quintana Roo (23%). The states of Aguascalientes (0.2% ), Coahuila (0.2%), Zacatecas (0.2%) and Nuevo León (0.5%) have the lowest proportion of speakers of indigenous languages (INEGI, - 2004).Mexico is the country where the greatest number of U.S citizens live outside the United States. This may be due to the growing economic and business interdependence of the two countries under NAFTA, and also that Mexico is considered an excellent choice for retirees. A clear example of the latter phenomenon is provided by San Miguel de Allende and many towns along the Baja California peninsula and around Guadalajara, Jalisco. The official figures for foreign-born citizens in Mexico are 493,000 (since 2004), with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the US (with the exception of Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The five states with more immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Federal District (11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3). More than 54.6% of the immigrant population are 15 years old or younger, while 9% are 50 or older. 4.2% of male immigrants and 3.8% of female immigrants did not have formal education while 20.2% of male immigrants and 17.7% of female immigrants had a college degree INEGI, - 2004.Life expectancy in Mexico increased from 34.7 for men and 33 years for women in 1930 to 72.1 for men and 77.1 years for women in 2002. The states with the highest life expectancy are Baja California (75.9 years) and Nuevo Leon (75.6 years). The Federal District has a life expectancy of the same level as Baja California. The lowest levels are found in Chiapas (72.9), Oaxaca (73.2) and Guerrero (73.2 years), although the first two have had the highest increase (19.9 and 22.3% respectively).The mortality rate in 1970 was 9.7/1000 people and by 2001 the rate had dropped to 4.9/1000 for men and 3.8/1000 for women. The most common reasons for death in 2001 were heart problems (14.6% for men 17.6% for women) and Cancer (11% for men and 15.8% for women).
Religion - ] Mexico is predominantly Catholic Church in MexicoRoman Catholic (about 89% of the population), with 6% adhering to various Protestant faiths (mostly PentecostalismPentecostal), and the remaining 5% of the population adhering to other religions or professing no religion. Some of the country's Catholics (notably those of indigenous background) syncreticsyncretize Catholicism with various elements of Aztec or Mayan peopleMayan religions. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism) has a growing presence in the major border cities of northeastern Mexico with over 1,000,000 members nationwide. Judaism has been practiced in Mexico for centuries, and there are estimated to be 100,000 Jews in Mexico today. Islam is mainly practiced by members of the Arab, Turkish peoplesTurkish, and other expatriate communities, though there is a very small number of the indegenious population in Chiapas state that practice Islam.
Languages - Spanish languageSpanish is the official language of Mexico and is spoken by the majority of the population. About 7% of the population speak an Amerindian language. The government officially recognizes 62 Amerindian languages. Of these Nahuatl, and Maya languageMaya are each spoken by 1.5 million, while others, such as Lacandon, are spoken by less than 100. The Mexican government has promoted and established bilingual education programs in indigenous rural communities.Although Spanish is the official language of Mexico, English languageEnglish is widely used in business. As a result, English language skills are much in demand and can lead to an increase in the salary offered by a company. It is also spoken along the U.S.-Mexico borderU.S. border, in big cities, and in beach resorts. Also, the majority of private schools in Mexico offer what they like to describe as "bilingual" education, both in Spanish and English. English is the main language spoken in U.S. expatriate communities such as those along the coast of Baja California and the town of San Miguel de Allende. There are also Mormon colonies in Chihuahua where education is delivered in English.With respect to other European languages brought by immigrants, the case of Chipilo, in the state of Puebla, is unique, and has been documented by several linguists like Carolyn McKay. The immigrants that founded the city of Chipilo in 1882 came from the Veneto region in northern Italy, and thus spoke a northern variant of the Venetian languageVenetian dialect. While other European immigrants assimilated into the Mexican culture, the people of Chipilo retained their language. Nowadays, most of the people who live in the city of Chipilo (and many of those who have migrated to other cities) still speak the unaltered Veneto dialect spoken by their great-grandparents making the Veneto dialect an unrecognized minority language in the city of Puebla, PueblaPuebla. A similar case is that of the Plautdietsch language, spoken by the descendants of German and Dutch Mennonite immigrants in the states of Chihuahua and Durango.
Education - mainEducation in Mexico Mexico has made impressive improvements in education in the last two decades. In 2004, the literacy rate was at 92%, and the youth literacy rate (ages 15-24) was 96%. Primary and secondary education (9 years) is free and mandatory. Even though different bilingual education programs have existed since the 1960s for the indigenous communities, after a constitution reform in the late 1990s, these programs have had a new thrust, and free text books are produced in more than a dozen indigenous languages. In the 1970's, Mexico became the first country to establish a system of "distance-learning" satellite secondary education, aimed for the little towns and rural communities. In 2005 this system included 30,000 connected schools, 3 million students and 300,000 teachers, who use televised lectures and education science programs, pre-recorded and transmited through "EduSat", via satellite. Schools that use this system are known as ''telesecundarias'' in Mexico. The Mexican "distance-learning" secondary education is also transmitted to some Central American countries and to Colombia, and it is used in some southern regions of the United States as a method of bilingual education.
Culture - ''Main article: Culture of Mexico''Music of MexicoLiterature of MexicoCinema of MexicoCuisine of MexicoHolidays and celebrations in Mexico
The name - IPA notice Mexico is named after its capital city, whose name comes from the Aztec city Mexico-Tenochtitlan that preceded it. The ''Mexi'' part of the name is from Mexitli, the war god, whose name was derived from ''metztli'' (the moon) and ''xictli'' (navel) and thus meant "navel (probably implying 'child') of the moon". So, Mexico is the home of the people of Mexitli (the Mexicas), ''co'' meaning "place" and ''ca'' meaning "people".When the Spaniards encountered this people and transcribed their language, they naturally did so according to the spelling rules of the Castilian language of the time. The Nahuatl language had a IPA/ʃ/ sound (like English !"shop& quot;),? and this sound was written ''x'' in Spanish (e.g. !''Ximénez' ');? consequently, the letter ''x'' was used to write down words like ''Mexitli''.Over the centuries, the pronunciation of Spanish changed. Words like ''Ximénez'', ''exercicio'', ''xabón'' and ''perplexo'' started to be pronounced with a IPA/x/ (this International Phonetic Alphabetphonetic symbol represents the sound in the word !"loch& quot;).? The IPA/ʒ/ sound (as in !"visio n")? represented by the letter ''j'' (usually ''g'' before ''e'' or ''i'') also started to be pronounced this way. The coalescence of the two phonemes into a single new one encouraged scholars to use the same letter for the sound, regardless of its origin (Spanish scholars have always tried to keep the orthography of their language faithful to the spoken tongue). It was ''j''/''g'' that was chosen. So, modern Spanish has ''ejercicio'', ''ejército'', ''jabón'', ''perplejo'', etc. (Another example is the old spelling of ''Don Quixote'' which is now ''Don Quijote''. The old pronunciation is maintained in French "Quichotte", and the English word "quixotic" maintains the spelling while pronouncing it with its English value.)Proper nouns and their derivatives are optionally allowed to break this rule. Thus, although ''xabón'' is now incorrect and archaic, alongside many millions of people called "Jiménez", there also are plenty called "Giménez" or "Ximénez" — a matter of personal choice and tradition.In Mexico, it has become almost a matter of national pride to maintain the otherwise archaic ''x'' spelling in the name of the country. It is regarded as more authentic and less jarring to the reader's eye. Mexicans have tended to demand that other Spanish-speakers use this spelling, rather than following the general rule, and the demand has largely been respected. The Real Academia Española states that both spellings are correct, and most dictionaries and guides recommend ''México'' first, and present ''Méjico'' as a variant. Today, even outside of the country, ''México'' is preferred over ''Méjico'' by ratios ranging from 10-to-1 (in Spain) to about 280-to-1 (in Costa Rica). Also, in the placenames "Oaxaca" and "Xalapa", the x is pronounced as IPA/x/ ; in "Xochimilco", however, it sounds as a IPA/ʃ/ .A cultural side-effect of the fact that Mexicans use ''México'' IPA/'mexiko/ and Spaniards sometimes use ''Méjico'' is the occasional boiling-over of negative sentiment towards the old colonial oppressor. The mere act of using the ''j'' spelling is interpreted by some as a form of colonial aggression. On the other hand, some Peninsular scholars (such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal) prefer to apply the general spelling rule, arguing that the spelling with an ''x'' could encourage non-Mexicans to mispronounce ''México'' as IPA/'meksiko/ (as is generally the case in the English-speaking world). ''Méjico'' on the other hand could easily be mispronounced as well, because the letter ''j'' stands for IPA/ʒ/, /dʒ/ or /j/ in other languages.In the Nahuatl language, from which the name originally derived, the name for Mexico is Mēxihco (International Phonetic AlphabetIPA IPA/meː.ɕiʔ.ko/ ).
Miscellaneous topics - CommonscatMexico WikinewsMexico Communications in MexicoEducation in MexicoForeign affairs of MexicoList of cities in MexicoList of Mexican UniversitiesList of MexicansList of Presidents of MexicoMilitary of MexicoMusic of MexicoSport in MexicoTransportation in MexicoU.S.-Mexico borderZapatista uprising in Chiapas, Mexico
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Websites
Norbert Schmitt -Paintings & Objects-
Layers as levels of experience and awareness, symbols which can be “grasped” in the truest sense of the word: in Norbert Schmitt’s sculptures both can be found. So he builds up objects tending to small sculptural items out of wood, textiles and colour, fitting together basic geometric forms to form organic-seeming artistic creations. In contrast to his paintings colour here takes second place to form – The colour should develop for the observer,” the artist explains – and his sculptures hereby assume the character of cult objects: Resting in themselves and yet full of impulsive power at the same time, they demonstrate Schmitt’s ability to condense in a form abstract and objective elements in a vivid and subtle way.
http://www.NorbertSchmitt.com/
Merkadoteknia.com
La empresa numero uno de e-mail marketing en Cancun y Riviera Maya, Mexico
http://www.merkadoteknia.com/
Nachos Rule
The World Where Nachos Rule!
http://www.nachosrule.com/
Disney World
International Ticket Wholesaler
http://www.orlandotour.com/
from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego
Seven years with an Unimog Expedition Mobile between Alaska and Tierra del Fuego
http://www.trotamundos.ch/
Butterfly's Vision - Western Art Gallery
Western Art Gallery with framed Prints and a lot of gifts for Lovers od horses
http://www.butterflysvision.de/
Wedding Planner & Reception in Playa del Carmen
Playa del Carmen, Riviera Maya Wedding Planner, Coordinator for Wedding Receptions, Beach Weddings, Catholic Weddings, Non-Denominational Weddings, Renewal and Commitment Ceremonies, Banquets, Catering, Mayan Weddings,Shaman,, Cancun, Akumal, Tulum
http://www.ajuaweddings.com
Meridian World Travel
The best value in travel at up to 80% off
http://www.meridianworldtravel.com/
No Prescription Drugs
The comprehensive and safe online pharmacy - buy 100's of branded RX drugs fast - no prescription - no consultation fee
http://www.noprescriptiondrugs.com/
Cigar Shop
On line sales of Mexican Cigars
http://www.ophptrading.com/
U S Work Visas for Canadians
A good dite for information about US Canadian Immigration and income tax rules
http://www.usworkvisas.net/
The 3 Amigos & Copper Canyon Conexions
Travel agency in Creel, your gateway to the Copper Canyon! Vehicle rentals, scooter and bike rentals, travel packages, train tickets, hotels, etc...
http://www.amigos3.com
Puerto Aventuras vacation condos and villas for rent and sale
Puerto Aventuras Resort, located only 45min from cancun international airport and only 25 minutes from tulum archeologycal site. Paradise Beach sales and rentals, offers you Villas, Condos for rent or sale. Paradise Beach Sales and Rentals provide you with valuable resources to buy or rent the right property in Puerto Aventuras. daily and long rentals availables
http://www.puertoaventurasrentas.com/
Family-Friendly Vacations
Family-friendly vacation website that helps families travel the smart way.
http://www.family-friendlyvacations.com
artisit
murals
http://www.valoreventures.com/
Rotary District 4100
Website from District 4100 from Rotary International.
http://www.rotary4100.org/
http://www.contusmanos.com/
Contusmanos.com, Directorio de talentos, Publica tus creaciones en la web, Caracas Venezuela
http://www.contusmanos.com/
Adventures & Travel in Mexico
Small hotels and B&B's in San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato and Palenque
http://www.adventuresandtravelinmexico.com/
Lateinamerika-Filmtage Hamburg
Seite des jährlichen lateinamerikanischen Filmfestes in Hamburg auf deutsch und spanisch. Filme und Regisseure aus und über Lateinamerika
http://www.cinelatino.de/
MLSAsiaPacific real estate property listings from the Middle East throughout Asia to the West Coast Americas
MLSAsiaPacific is the place to search for property for sale or rent in the Middle East, Asia, Oceania and the west coast of the Americas from Canada to Chile. Our members list houses, condominiums, villas, bungalows, island property, ethnic homes, factories, land and more
http://www.mlsasiapacific.com/
Cliff Dwellings of the Anasazi
Informational website about the ancient puebloans known as the Anasazi and the archaeological sites they left behind.
http://www.cliffdwelling.com
Latin American Folk Art
Important folk art from Mexico, Bolivia, Peru and Guatemala. Site includes indigenous textiles, lacquerware, masks and exceptional Huichol and Tepehuano yarn paintings.
http://www.latinamericanfolkart.com/
Alma Libre Bookstore
New and used novels as well as guides to the area, books on the animals and sea life of the area, books on the Maya. Also Spanish/English dictionaries and books to help learn Spanish.
http://www.almalibrebooks.com/
Ocean and cavern diving in the Yucatan, Riviera Maya Mexico.
Full service dive shop located in Mexico on the Rivera Maya Yucatan Tankah Tres beach.
http://www.luckyfishdiving.com/
Sun City Missions
Sun City Missions makes fulfilling the Great Commission a reality for youth groups across the United States every year. We now offer mission trips for adults and families with small children as well.
http://www.suncitymissions.com/
Yucatan Productions
Yucatan Productions is a full-service production support company for fashion, still and advertising photography in Merida, Yucatan. Location scouting, production and photo assistance, travel arrangements, permits and fees, equipment rental, casting and more.
http://www.yucatanproductions.com/
Sabor Latino
latin music
http://www.saborlatino.nl/
Pharmacy Online 4U
A leading online pharmacy specializing in difficult to obtain branded RX drugs and medicines - no prescription - no consultation fee
http://www.pharmacy-online-4u.com/
San Diego Sedan
Offering limousine reservations and corporate transportation services in San Diego and Southern California.
http://www.sandiegosedan.com/
Spiritual Retreats, Women's Retreats & Spiritual Journeys to Sacred Sites
Spiritual retreats and journeys to exquisite sacred sites! Women's retreats too! FREE Newsletter and tele-classes! Open your heart and mind with spiritual journeys and retreats.
http://www.journeysofthespirit.com
Travel Photo Album
Travel Photo Album of England, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, USA, Hawaii, Oregon, Crimea, Mexico
http://photoalb.us/
Xiranhua Comunicacion Indigena Purepecha
Es un sitio de información indigena sobre cultura y la situación real de las comunidades de Michoacán, Mexico.
http://www.xiranhua.com/
Colegio Preparatorio de Xalapa
Describes the school's history, prominent alumni, and notable departments and educational resources. Complete contentn in English and Spanish, with some information in French, Swedish, and several indigenous languages.
http://www.colegiopreparatoriodexalapa.com
The Art of Jerry McElroy
Jerry McElroy's oil and acrylic paintings depicting the southwest. Born in Colorado, Jerry is the fourth generation of McElroys to inhabit this state after his great great grandmother arrived in Denver by covered wagon. He was raised in Boulder and upon graduating from high school entered military service in the US Coast Guard. He graduated from Brooks Institute of Photography in 1977 and has worked as a commercial photographer for 28 years. He is a self taught oil and acrylic painter who's work centers around the desert southwest and the ancient puebloans. Being of Native American ancestry himself, he is drawn to the places and ruins of the Anasazi who flourished in the Four Corners Area over 700 years ago.
http://www.jerrymcelroy.com
Instituto Tecnológico de Saltillo
Instituto de Eduación publica ubicada en Saltillo Coahuila Mexico perteneciente a la Dirección General de Educación Superior Tecnológica fundad el 3 de Enero de 1951 con carreras de Ingeniería Eléctrica,Electrónica, Industrial, en Materiales, Mecánica, Mecatrónica y de Sistemas; Licenciaturas en Administración y en Informática y Posgrado en Materiales.
http://www.its.mx/
www.detailphoto.com
fine art color photography, architectural details.
http://www.detailphoto.com/
Playa del Carmen Restaurant -Wedding Reception
Playa del Carmen, Riviera Maya,Restaurant,Wedding Planner, Coordinator,Wedding Receptions, Beach Weddings, Catholic Weddings, Non-Denominational Weddings, Renewal and Commitment Ceremonies, Banquets, Catering, Mayan Weddings,Shaman,, Cancun, Akumal, Tulum
http://www.ajuamaya.com/
wuestworld
A private homepage about individual travelling including stories, pictures and useful information beyond mass tourism
http://www.wuestworld.de/
Radio Patjane
La puerta grande de entrada a México
http://www.radiopatjane.com/
Lugarlatino.com
Portal y buscador Latino con Chat y muchas cosas mas.
http://www.lugarlatino.com/
Mexican Home Cooking School
A course well beyond what is usually understood to be Mexican food. A rich cuisine developed in the Tlaxcala/Puebla area of Mexico in pre-Hispanic times. Added to and enhanced during Spanish and French occupations it resulted in a kitchen rich, subtle and complex as any in the world. This level of sophisticated gourmet cooking was kept in households for special occasions. It is almost never found in restaurants and nearly lost to the present generation
http://www.mexicanhomecooking.com/
Raft Mexico - Rafting en morelos y veracruz
Empresa dedicada a organizar expediciones de rafting en los rios de mexico en los estados de morelos y veracruz.rafting descenso en aguas bravas, rapidos
http://www.raftmexico.com/
Real de Catorce
The town of Real de Catotce
http://www.realdecatorce.net/
Psicoweb: Webs de Psicólogos
Psicoweb: Webs de Psicólogos de España y América
http://www.psicoweb.es
United States Process Serving Corp.
With an online directory of over 200 process servers you can use our zip code search engine to find the server closest to your service.
http://www.unitedstatesprocessserving.com/
Musica Grupera
Todo sobre la musica grupera y las carreras de caballos.
http://www.portalgrupero.com/
ArtistsInk
We are committed to unprecedented service to enhance the ability of artists to exhibit artwork worldwide. We are working to expand the availability of artwork and designs to art buyers everywhere. Our dedication will allow a growing web within our society to one of the most respected traditions done in the world.
http://www.artistsink.net/
Elijah Wald website
Website of writer and musician Elijah Wald
http://www.elijahwald.com/
Safekinder: Una Ventana Hacia su Angelito
Servicio de monitoreo via internet para kinders y guarderias en Mexico
http://www.safekinder.com/
Hotel Casa Inn Palenque
Viaje a Chiapas México y viva la experiencia de la naturaleza y el confort.
http://www.hotel-casainntulija.com/
Digital computadoras & hosting
Servicio de hospedaje, diseño de paginas web, dominios de cualquier tipo.
http://www.digitalcomputadoras.com/
COVE Surf Co.
Supplying apparel, surfboards and skateborads to the wholesale and retail market.
http://www.covesurf.com/
Yucatan Today
Yucatan Today is the leading tourist guide for Merida, Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula. If you are planning a trip to the Yucatan, check out the hotel, restaurant, travel agent and car rental listings, maps, culture and destination articles, transportation tips, current events and more.
http://www.yucatantoday.com/
STAINLESS STEEL - Böhse Onkelz-Coverband
Böhse Onkelz-Coverband
http://www.onkelzcover.de/
Matacanes - Mexico Adveture Travel
Mountain River guides to canyoneering experience. Canyoning (known in the U.S. as canyoneering) is a activity popular in several countries. It involves traveling down creeks or streams within a canyon by a variety of means including walking, scrambling, climbing, rappelling and swimming. It requires skills in navigation, rope work, climbing, avoiding hypothermia etc. Typically what separates a canyon from any ordinary stream is the narrow passage created by erosion into bedrock, creating beautiful sculptured walls and spectacular waterfalls.
http://www.aventurs.com/
Mochisonline.com El portal de la ciudad
Portal de Los Mochis sinaloa, donde encuentras fotos, clasificados, chat, eventos y más.
http://www.mochisonline.com/
Spanish Language Schools: Spanish Immersion in Mexico, Costa Rica, Latin America and Spain
AVENTURAS Languages: Experiencia, Intensive Cuernavaca Mexico Spanish language and cultural immersion schools. Adventuras Study abroad, learn Mexican Spanish. Toll-Free: 866-4 Spanish. Rapid language acquisition. Mexican homestays. Excursions and travel study options. Spanish Immersion: Adults, Families,Teens, Children.
http://www.aventurased.com/
Agencia Misionera Una Nueva Fuerza en las Misiones Mundiales
La Misión de LAMM es apoyar y servir a la iglesia y a los misioneros mexicanos a quienes Dios está llamando a llevar el evangelio a los no alcanzados del mundo.
http://www.latinoamericaalmundo.org/
Massage Therapy by Gustavo Morales
Massage Therapy Services
http://www.gustavomorales.com/
Vakantiehuis Blogo
Weblog met accommodatie links met o.a. accommodatie, vakantie, vakantiehuis, vakantiehuisje, vakantiewoning, hotel, holiday, aanbieding, appartement, studio, verhuur, huur, ...
http://www.vakantiehuis.blogo.nl
HOTEL ENCINO
We are located in the hearth of the Down Town, one block from the beach and 2 blocks from the malecon.
http://www.hotelencino.com/
Posada Luna del Sur
A small, intimate Hotel in Tulum, Mexico. A gem of unmatched value in the Riviera Maya, minutes from beaches and Mayan ruins
http://www.posadalunadelsur.com
Hotel Playa del Carmen
Funkystyle Hotel in the Center of Playa del Carmen Mexico only one block from the caribbean ocean.
http://www.siestafiestahotel.com/
texas gulf offshore saltwater fishing guide and charter for port arthur galveston freeport texas gulf of mexico
Welcome to Sabine Adventures. From offshore in the Gulf of Mexico to inland fishing in Sabine Lake, Sabine Adventures will make your trip a lifetime adventure. Red Snapper, Ling, sharks, trout, reds, the fishing is great! Offshore or in Sabine Lake, let Sabine Adventures charter and guide your next fishing trip.
http://www.sabineadventures.com/
Xcalak, Costa Maya Mexico Caribbean travel adventures weather information shop, portillas.com
Xcalak, Costa Maya, Quintana Roo, Yucatan Caribbean beach Mexico travel and vacation adventures stories, blogs, free fiction ebook, jokes, pictures and photos, local weather information, fishing, scuba shop Portillas.com
http://www.portillas.com/
Jane Butel's Cooking School
Jane Butel, the first to write about southwestern cooking, is an internationally recognized authority on the regional cooking of the American southwest. In the late 1970's, following a successful career as one of America's top Consumer Affairs executives, she launched her writing, teaching, television, consulting, and spice business. Her cooking schools in New Mexico and Scottsdale, AZ, have garnered high recognition. Bon Appetit magazine selected her school as one of the four best in the world and Gayot.com listed her hotel-based schools as the best in the US and one of the world's top ten. She is currently developing online cooking classes and a cooking club. She also conducts tours to Mexico and Spain. Pecos Valley Spice Co., a trusted source for chiles, spices, and other authentic southwestern ingredients, was founded in 1978. She continues to spice up America's favorite cuisine with recipes from the rich culinary, cultural, and historical heritage of the Southwest. She has written 18 cookbooks, including Northland's Real Women Eat Chiles, which was just released in March, 2006.
http://janebutel.com
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
Official site links to each directorate as well as to attorney employment, listserv signup, FAQ, a virtual tour, the CIA Museum, press releases and reports, and reference pages on world geography, history, politics and chiefs of state. Alphabetical site index, site map, search, and a special section on terrorism.
http://www.cia.gov/
Access Mexico Connect
Monthly E-zine. Devoted to promoting Mexico to the world with feature sections on the states, cities, art, history, culture, travel, tours, hotels, vacations, immigration, businesses, and retirement.
http://www.mexconnect.com/
Contadores Publicos
Contadores publicos, declaraciones de impuestos, asesoría fiscal gratuita.
http://www.mexico.com
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