sun

the star that is the source of light and heat for the planets in the solar system

"the sun contains 99.85% of the mass in the solar system"

"the Earth revolves around the Sun" the rays of the sun

"the shingles were weathered by the sun and wind" a person considered as a source of warmth or energy or glory etc any star around which a planetary system revolves first day of the week

observed as a day of rest and worship by most Christians expose one's body to the sun expose to the rays of the sun or affect by exposure to the sun

"insolated paper may turn yellow and crumble"

"These herbs suffer when sunned"

::otheruses ''For the astrological significance of the Sun, see Solar system in !astrology.'':"Solar&qu ot;? redirects here; for the superhero by that name, see Solar (comics).'' The Sun is the star at the centre of our Solar system. It is often referred to by academics by its Latin name, ''Sol'', to distinguish it from other "suns". Planet Earth orbits the Sun, as do many other bodies, including other planets, asteroids, meteoroids, comets and dust. Its heat and light support almost all life on Earth.The Sun is a ball of plasma with a mass of about 2e30 kg, which is somewhat higher than that of an average star. About 74% of its mass is hydrogen, with 25% helium and the rest made up of trace quantities of heavier elements. It is thought that the Sun is about 5 billion years old, and is about halfway through its main sequence evolution, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. In about 5 billion years time the Sun will become a planetary nebula.Although it is the nearest star to Earth and has been intensively studied by scientists, many questions about the Sun remain unanswered, such as why its outer atmosphere has a temperature of over 10⁶ KelvinK when its visible surface (the photosphere) has a temperature of just 6,000 K.Looking directly at the Sun can damage the retina and one's eyesight. #Sun_and_eye_damageSee below for details.

General information - The Sun is classified as a main sequence star, which means it is in a state of "hydrostatic balance", neither contracting nor expanding, and is generating its energy through nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei into helium. The Sun has a Stellar_classificationspectral class of G2V, with the G2 meaning that its color is yellow and its spectrum contains spectral lines of ionized and neutral metals as well as very weak hydrogen lines astro.uiuc.edu, and the V signifying that it, like most stars, is a "Main sequencedwarf" star on the main sequencephysics.uq.edu.au.The Sun has a predicted main sequence lifetime of about 10 billion years. Its current age is thought to be about 4.5 billion years, a figure which is determined using computer simulationcomputer models of stellar evolution, and nucleocosmochronology refBonanno . The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way galaxy at a distance of about 25,000 to 28,000 light-years from the galactic centre, completing one revolution in about 1 E15 s226 million years. The orbital speed is 217 km/s, equivalent to one light year every 1400 years, and one Astronomical UnitAU every 8 days.The Astronomical symbolsastronomical symbol for the Sun is a circumpunctcircle with a point at its centre .

Structure - The Sun is a near-perfect sphere, with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths, which means the polar diameter differs from the equatorial by about 10 km. This is because the centrifugal effect of the Sun's slow Solar rotationrotation is 18 million times weaker than its surface gravity (at the equator). Tidal effects from the planets do not significantly affect the shape of the Sun, although the Sun itself orbits the barycentercenter of mass of the solar system, which is offset from the Sun's center mostly because of the large mass of Jupiter (planet)Jupiter. The mass of the Sun is so comparatively great that the center of mass of the solar system is generally within the bounds of the Sun itself.The Sun does not have a definite boundary as rocky planets do, as the density of its gases drops off following an approximately !Exponential_distribution exponential relationship with distance from the centre of the Sun. Nevertheless, the Sun has well defined interior structure, described below. The Sun's radius is measured from centre to the edges of the photosphere.The solar interior is not directly observable and the Sun itself is opaque to electromagnetic radiation. However, just as the study of the waves generated by earthquakes (seismology) can be used to study the interior structure of the Earth, helioseismology, the study of sound waves that travel through the Sun's interior, has also contributed greatly to our understanding of the Sun's structure refThompson . Computer modeling of the Sun is also used as a theoretical tool to investigate its deep layers.

Core - At the center of the Sun, where its density reaches up to 150,000 kg/m³ (150 times the density of water on Earth), thermonuclear reactions (nuclear fusion) convert hydrogen into helium, producing the energy that keeps the Sun in a state of equilibrium. About 8.9e37 protonprotons (hydrogen nuclei) are converted to helium nuclei every second, releasing energy at the matter-energy conversion rate of 4.26 million tonnes per second or 383 SI prefixyottawatts (9.15e16 tons of TrinitrotolueneTNT per second). Models predict that the high-energy photons released in fusion reactions take about a million years to reach the Sun's surface, where they escape as visible light. Neutrinos are also released in the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they very rarely interact with matter, and so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately.The core extends from the center of the Sun to about 0.2 solar radii, and is the only part of the Sun where an appreciable amount of heat is produced by fusion: the rest of the star is heated by energy that is transferred outward. All of the energy of the interior fusion must travel through the successive layers to the solar photosphere, before it escapes to space.

Radiation zone - From about 0.2 to about 0.7 solar radii, the material is hot and dense enough that thermal radiation is sufficient to transfer the intense heat of the core outward. In this zone, there is no thermal convection: while the material grows cooler with altitude, this temperature gradient is not strong enough to drive convection. Heat is transferred by ions of hydrogen and helium emitting photons, which travel a brief distance before being re-absorbed by other ions. After being absorbed by gas molecules, they are re-emmitted. Although photon beams travell at the speed of light, they are continuously being absorbed and re-emmitted. Because of this, it will take a photon approximately 1 million years for it to reach the Photosphere.

Convection zone - From about 0.7 solar radii to 1.0 solar radii, the material in the Sun is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. As a result, convectionthermal convection occurs as thermalthermal columns carry hot material to the surface (photosphere) of the Sun. Once the material cools off at the surface, it plunges back downward to the base of the convection zone, to receive more heat from the top of the radiative zone. Convective overshoot is thought to occur at the base of the convection zone, carrying turbulent downflows into the outer layers of the radiative zone.The thermal columns in the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun, in the form of the Granule (solar physics)solar granulation and supergranulation. The turbulent convection of this outer part of the solar interior gives rise to a 'small-scale' dynamo that produces magnetic north and south poles all over the surface of the Sun.

Photosphere - The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere, sunlight is free to propagate into space and its energy escapes the Sun entirely. Sunlight has approximately a black-body spectrum that indicates its temperature is about 6,000 KelvinK, interspersed with atomic absorption lineabsorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere.The photosphere has a particle density of about !10²³/m& lt;sup>3? (this is about 1% of the particle density of Earth's atmosphere at sea level). The parts of the Sun above the photosphere are referred to collectively as the ''solar atmosphere''. They can be viewed with telescopes operating across the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio through visible light to gamma rays.

Temperature minimum - The coolest layer of the Sun is the temperature minimum region about 500 km above the photosphere. It is about 4,000 KelvinK. It is the only part of the Sun cool enough to support simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water; all other parts of the Sun are hot enough to break chemical bonds.

Chromosphere - Above the visible surface of the Sun is a thin layer, about 2,000 km thick, that is dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the ''chromosphere'' from the Greek root ''chromos'', meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of solar eclipsetotal eclipses of the Sun.

Corona - The corona is the extended outer atmosphere of the Sun, which is much larger in volume than the Sun itself. The corona merges smoothly with the solar wind that fills the solar system and heliosphere. The low corona, which is very near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density of !10¹¹/m& lt;sup>3? (Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about !2x10²⁵/ m³).? The temperature of the corona is several million degrees K.

Theoretical problems -

Solar neutrino problem - )]]For some time it was thought that the number of neutrinos produced by the nuclear reactions in the Sun was only a third of the number predicted by theory, a result that was termed the solar neutrino problem. Several neutrino observatories were constructed, including the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory and Kamiokande to try to measure the solar neutrino flux. It has recently been found that neutrinos have rest mass, and can therefore transform into harder-to-detect varieties of neutrinos while en route from the Sun to Earth in a process known as neutrino oscillation refSchlattl . Thus, measurement and theory have been reconciled.

Coronal heating problem - The optical surface of the Sun (the photosphere) is known to have a temperature of about 6,000 KelvinK. Above it lies the solar corona with a temperature of one million kelvins. The high temperature of the corona suggests that it is heated by something other than the photosphere.It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere. Two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating: Wave heating, in which sound, gravitational and magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient gas in theform of heat. The other proposed mechanism is flare heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of solar flares and waves. refBiermann1 , refBiermann2 , refAlfven , refParker .Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfven waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona(refSturrock , refPriest ). In addition, Alfven waves do not easily dissipate in the corona refParker2 . Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heatingmechanisms. One possible candidate to explain coronal heating is continuous flaring at small scales refParker2 , but this is still an open topic of investigation.

Faint young sun problem - mainFaint young sun paradox Theoretical models of the sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the ArcheanArchean period, the Sun was only about 75 percent as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on the Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop.However, the geologic record shows that the Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history. In fact, the young Earth was actually warmer than it is today. Some scientists have suggested that the young Earth's atmosphere contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and/or ammonia than are present today refKasting . Others suggest that cosmic rays might strongly influence the Earth's climate, and that their flux was much higher in the early history of the solar system refCarslaw .

Magnetic field - All matter in the Sun is in the form of gas and plasma due to its high temperatures. This makes it possible for the Sun to rotate faster at its equator (about 25 days) than it does at higher latitudes (28 days near its poles). The solar rotationdifferential rotation of the Sun's latitudes causes its magnetic field lines to become twisted together over time, causing magnetic field loops to erupt from the Sun's surface and trigger the formation of the Sun's dramatic sunspots and solar prominences. (See magnetic reconnection.) The solar activity cycle includes old magnetic fields being stripped off the Sun's surface starting from one pole and ending at the other. The magnetic field of the sun reverses once for each 11-year sunspot cycle.The plasma in the interplanetary medium is also responsible for the strength of the Sun's magnetic field at the orbit of the Earth being over 100 times greater than originally anticipated. If space were a vacuum, then the Sun's 10^-4 tesla (unit)tesla magnetic dipole field would reduce with the cube of the distance to about 10^-11 tesla. But satellite observations show that it is about 100 times greater at around 10^-9 tesla. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) theory predicts that the motion of a conducting fluid (e.g. the interplanetary medium) in a magnetic field, induces electric currents which in turn generates magnetic fields, and in this respect it behaves like an MHD dynamo.

Position of the Sun through the year - The path of the Sun across the sky varies throughout the year. The shape described by the Sun's position, considered at the same time each day for a complete year, is called the analemma, and resembles a figure 8, aligned along the North/South direction. The most obvious variation in the Sun's apparent position through the year is a North/South swing over 47 degrees of angle, due to the 23.5 degree tilt of the Earth, but there is an East/West component as well. The North/South swing in apparent angle is the main source of seasons on Earth.

Solar space missions - /EIT telescope using ultravioletUV light from the heliumHe⁺ emission line at wavelength30.4 nanometernm. !(media:SOHO_solar_flare_sun_MP EG_20031026_eit_304.mpeg Animation (980 kB MPEG))]]To obtain an uninterrupted view of the Sun, the European Space Agency and NASA cooperatively launched the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) on December 2, 1995.Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from astronomical spectroscopyspectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is much less well known. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis (spacecraft)Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material. It returned to Earth in 2004 and is undergoing analysis, but it was damaged by crash-landing when its parachute failed to deploy on reentry to Earth's atmosphere.

History and future of the Sun - The Sun is thought to be a second-generation star, whose formation may have been triggered by shockwaves from a nearby supernova. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements such as iron, gold and uranium in the solar system: the most plausible ways that these elements could be produced are by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova or by transmutation via neutron absorption inside a massive first generation star.Our Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova, and its mass is below the Chandrasekhar limit. Instead, in 4-5 billion years it will enter its red giant phase, its outer layers expanding as the hydrogen fuel in the core is consumed and the core contracts and heats up. Helium fusion will begin when the core temperature reaches about 3e8 K. While it is likely that the expansion of the outer layers of the Sun will reach the current position of Earth's orbit, recent research suggests that mass lost from the Sun earlier in its red giant phase will cause the Earth's orbit to move further out, preventing it from being engulfed. Following the red giant phase, giant thermal pulsations will cause the Sun to throw off its outer layers forming a planetary nebula. The Sun will then evolve into a white dwarf, slowly cooling over eons. This stellar evolution scenario is typical of low to medium mass stars.

Human understanding of the Sun - see also Sun worship'' pulled by a horse is believed to be a sculpture illustrating an important part of Nordic Bronze Age mythology]]Mankind's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the heavens whose presence above the horizon creates day, and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deitydeity or other supernatural phenomenon.One of the first people in the Western world to offer a scientific explanation for the sun was the Ancient GreeceGreek philosopher Anaxagoras, who reasoned that it was a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the Peleponessus, and not the chariot of Helios. For teaching this heresy he was imprisoned by the authorities and capital punishmentsentenced to death (though later released through the intervention of Pericles).With respect to the fixed starfixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac. Thus, the Sun was considered by Greek astronomers to be one of the seven planetplanets (Greek ''planetes'' "wanderer"), after which the seven days of the week are named in some languages.

The Sun as a power source - Sunlight — that is, light radiated from the surface of the Sun — is thought to be the main source of energy near the surface of Earth. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. It is about 1370 watts per square meter of area. Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuationattenuated by the Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface — closer to 1000 watts per directly exposed square meter in clear conditions. This energy can be harnessed through several natural and synthetic processes. Photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical conversion by solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or do other useful work. The energy stored in petroleum is thought to have been converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past.

Sun and eye damage - Sunlight is very bright, and looking directly at the Sun is painful to the eyes. Looking directly at the Sun when it is high in the sky causes temporary bleaching of the photosensitive pigments in the retina, which makes phosphene visual artifacts and may cause ''temporary'' partial blindness. Direct viewing of the Sun with the naked eye delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina that is in the solar image, heating it up and potentially (though not normally) damaging it. Brief viewing of the full direct Sun with the naked eye is unpleasant but generally safe.Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating optics such as binoculars is hazardous without an filter (optics)attenuating (ND) filter to dim the sunlight. Suitable filters are available at welding supply shops and camera stores. Using a proper filter is very important as some improvised filters reduce visible light while passing either infrared or ultraviolet rays that can still damage the eye. Viewing the Sun through unfiltered 7x50 mm binoculars can deliver as much as 2.5 watts of sunlight into each eye, over 300 times more power than naked eye viewing. Even brief glances at the midday Sun through unfiltered binoculars can cause permanent blindness. During eclipsepartial eclipses of the Sun, another hazardous condition exists because of the way the eye responds to bright light. The pupil is controlled by the total amount of light in the visual field, ''not'' by the brightest object in the field. During partial eclipses, most sunlight is blocked by the Moon passing directly in front of the Sun, but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness as during a normal day. In the dim overall light, the pupil tends to dilate from about 2 mm to perhaps 6 mm diameter, increasing the eye's collecting area by a factor of nearly 10. Each retinal cell that is exposed to the partially-eclipsed solar image thus receives about ''ten times'' as much light as it would looking at the normal, non-eclipsed Sun. Viewing the partially eclipsed Sun with the naked eye can cause permanent localized damage to the retina, resulting in small, permanent blind spots for the viewer. This is an especially insidious hazard for inexperienced observers and for children, because there is no immediate perception of pain and it is tempting to stare at the spectacle of the eclipsing Sun, compounding any damage.During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated by a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere, and the direct Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed directly without discomfort or safely with binoculars. Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.

External links - sisterlinksSun

sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov - Current SOHO snapshots

soi.stanford.edu - Far-Side Helioseismic Holography from stanford.edu - Stanford

sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov - NASA Eclipse homepage

sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov - Nasa SOHO (Solar & Heliospheric Observatory) satellite ? sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov - FAQ

soi.stanford.edu - Solar Sounds from stanford.edu - Stanford

spaceweather.com - Spaceweather.com

scienceworld.wolfram.com - Eric Weisstein's World of Astronomy - Sun

astro.uu.nl - The Position of the Sun

lmsal.com - A collection of solar movies

solarphysics.kva.se - The Institute for Solar Physics- Movies of Sunspots and spicules

science.msfc.nasa.gov - NASA/Marshall Solar Physics website

rredc.nrel.gov - Solar Position Algorithm and nrel.gov - documentation from the nrel.gov - National Renewable Energy Laboratory

libnova.sourceforge.net - libnova - a celestial mechanics and astronomical calculation library

References - # noteAlfven Alfven, H., 1947, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society., 107, 211# noteBiermann1 Biermann, L., 1946, Naturwissenschaffen, 33, 118# noteBonanno Bonanno, A., Schlattl, H., Paternò, L. (2002), ''The age of the Sun and the relativistic corrections in the EOS'', Astronomy and Astrophysics, v.390, p.1115-1118# noteCarslaw Carslaw, K.S., Harrison, R.G., Kirkby, J., 2002, ''Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Climate'', Science, 298, 1732-1737# noteKasting Kasting, J.F., Ackerman, T.P., 1986, ''Climatic Consequences of Very High Carbon Dioxide Levels in the Earth’s Early Atmosphere'', Science, v. 234, p. 1383-1385# noteParker Parker, E.N., 1958, Astrophysical Journal, 128, 644# noteParker2 Parker, E.N., 1988, Astrophysical Journal, 330, 474# notePriest Priest, E.R., 1982, Solar Magnetohydrodynamics (Dordrecht: Reidel), pp. 206-245# noteSchlattl Schlattl, H. (2001), ''Three-flavor oscillation solutions for the solar neutrino problem'', Physical Review D, vol. 64, Issue 1# noteSturrock Sturrock, P.A., & Uchida, Y., 1981, Astrophysical Journal., 246, 331# noteThompson Thompson, M.J. (2004), ''Solar interior: Helioseismology and the Sun's interior'', Astronomy & Geophysics, v. 45, p. 4.21-4.25#ffffc0 Category:Sun Category:Yellow dwarfsCategory:Space plasmasCategory:Plasma !physicsaf:Sonam:ፀሐይang:S unnear:شمسbg:Слънцеzh -min-nan:Ji̍t-thâuca:Solcs:S luncecy:Haulda:Solende:Sonneet :Päikeel:Ήλιοςes:Soleo:S unoeu:Eguzkifa:خورشیدfr: Soleilga:Griangl:Solgu:સૂ� ��્યko:태양hi:सूर� ��यhr:Sunceio:Sunoid:Matahar iia:Solit:Solehe:השמשkw:Ho wlsw:Juaku:رۆژla:Sollt:Saul ėli:Zonhu:Nap? !(égitest)mt:Xemxms:Mataharina h:Tonatiuhnl:Zonnds:Sünnja:� �陽no:Solenpl:Słońcept:Solr o:Soareru:Солнцеsh:Sunce scn:Sulisimple:Sunsk:Slnkosl:S oncesr:Сунцеsu:Panonpoéf i:Aurinkosv:Solentl:Araw? !(astronomiya)th:ดวงอ� �ทิตย์vi:Mặt? !Trờitr:Güneşuk:Сонцеz h:太阳pam:Aldo

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